The ecology of ungulates in the Waterberg Plateau National Park, Namibia.

Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Sciences. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2019.Although ungulate species form an important component of Namibia’s economy through tourism, their population sizes vary substantially in relation to irregular rainfall, poaching, predation and competition, amongst other reasons. Understanding the ecology of ungulates is the key to adaptive ecosystem management and wildlife conservation in semi-arid savanna ecosystems. The study was conducted at Waterberg National Park, to determine habitat preferences, seasonal variation in population structure, daily drinking activities of twelve ungulate species and population dynamics of ungulates over a period of 33 years (1980-2013). The data used included road counts in all four vegetation types in the park (Terminalia sericea- Melhania acuminata vegetation, Terminalia sericea-Thesium megalocarpum, Terminalia sericea-Blepharis integrifolia, and the rock-inhabiting Peltophorum africanum community), waterhole counts, and pre-existing aerial counts. The probability of occurrence of large and medium ungulates was influenced by distance from the waterholes and from the roads. The population structure of seven herbivores varied in intricate ways between species and seasons. Smaller herds of ungulates were recorded most during the dry season as compared to larger herds observed during the wet season. Overall, the most frequent drinking times were between 15:00-22:00 with 18:00-19:00 being the conspicuous peak of the drinking activity, with 15% of animals in attendance. Four groups of ungulates were identified as per their drinking activity patterns: 1) day drinkers (warthog, giraffe, roan, and sable), 2) day/night drinkers (dik-dik, steenbok and common duiker), 3) evening/night drinkers (white rhino, black rhino and buffalo) and 4) night/morning drinkers (eland, gemsbok and kudu). The buffalo and eland population densities comprised together more than half of all ungulates recorded. Roan and sable antelope, kudu and warthog were also fairly common (with 5-12% of all ungulates recorded). White rhino, black rhino, giraffe, and gemsbok were classified as uncommon (together 11.9%), whilst the remaining seven species were rare (together 1.9%). Population size in eland showed a weak positive relationship with the annual average rainfall between the years 1981 - 2013, whereas population sizes in kudu, sable, gemsbok and roan showed a weak negative relationship with the amount of rain. No relationship was detected in giraffe, buffalo and hartebeest populations. The efficient management of wildlife resources that are economically and socially important necessitates regular surveys to monitor population trends in order to develop applicable management options. Thus, monitoring methods which are practical and efficient and provide accurate data are required for sound wildlife management. The results generated from this study provide novel contributions to strengthening management and conservation efforts of ungulates in Waterberg National Park and other wildlife parks in Namibia. More studies in the area of diet analysis of grazers and browsers as well as their preferences for particular plant species, with emphasis on inter- and intra- species competition is recommended.The second initial in the authors name (K) is incorrect as his full and correct name is Evert A. Kasiringua

Satisfying giant appetites : mechanisms of small scale foraging by large African herbivores

Variation in body mass allows for resource partitioning and co-existence of different species. Body mass is also seen as the main factor governing nutrient requirements in herbivores as metabolic rate and requirements have often been found to scale to ¾ power of body mass. Although the consequences of body mass on foraging behaviour of herbivores has been extensively studied, the mechanism behind how body mass differences determines the small scale foraging patterns of especially larger herbivores, has up to now been unclear. In this study, I looked at how body mass and small scale vegetation characteristics shaped the mouth morphology of herbivores and how body mass of a herbivore affects the scale at which intake is maximized. The results indicate that the dilution of plant mass and more specifically leaf mass in space requires that mega-herbivores such as elephant have enlarged soft mouth parts to compensate for this dilution. Finally, I demonstrate, using linear programming techniques with multiple nutrients as constraints, how a mega-herbivore’s daily diet choice is determined by forage abundance whereas a small herbivore is more constrained by fibre

ANTELOPE ALGORITHM FOR SOLVING OPTIMAL REACTIVE POWER DISPATCH PROBLEM

In this paper, Antelope Algorithm (AA) is proposed for solving optimal reactive power dispatch problem. A population of candidate solution move toward as a herd of Antelope out a sequence of jumps through the exploration space in order to find the most outstanding solution. The main idea of this algorithm is fairly different from the population based algorithms, as the individual solutions are stirred collectively in a herd-like approach. Projected Antelope Algorithm (AA) algorithm has been tested in standard IEEE 30 bus test system and simulation results show clearly about the superior performance of the projected algorithm in reducing the real power loss

The effects of human disturbance on the activity of wild reindeer in different physical condition

We compared two Norwegian wild reindeer herds, Knutsho in excellent physical condition and Hardangervidda in poor physical condition, before and during disturbance by human hunters in order to test whether physical condition effected foraging strategy under stress. Both herds were being regularly hunted (man had been a natural predator on reindeer since prehistoric time). The well-fed Knutsho animals were ca. 30% larger at the start of the hunting season in late August. Before exposure they foraged less and walked more, i.e. were more selective than the Hardangervidda animals which were in energetically lower condition and foraged significantly more and spent less time moving between habitat patches and less time standing. After exposure to hunters disturbed Knutsho animals aggregated into significantly larger groups than before hunting and stood alert more, while Hardangervidda animals spent the same minimum amount of time foraging but moved significantly more and spent almost no time standing. The frequency of disturbance was not significantly different between the two herds and their speeds of movement after disturbances were similar. The hunter kill success rate was also similar in the two areas. The energetic costs, measured as relative body weight loss during the hunting season, was higher for the initially less well-fed Hardangervidda animals, and higher for both herds compared to that from a less disturbed herd (Forelhogna). We hypothezise that while standing still and alert in aggregated groups is risky, it is still more risky to move, but potentially more rewarding if a better habitat could be found. More well-fed Knutsho animals, which aggregated and stood still, conserved allready stored energy, compatible with a time minimizer risk aversive strategy. The Hardangervidda animals which were in poorer condition increased travelling time to an extent that suggested a risky nutrient miximizer strategy in the phase of stress.Effekter av menneskelige forstyrrelser på aktiviteten til villrein i forskjellig fysisk kondisjon.Abstract in Norwegian / Sammendrag: For å teste om fysisk kondisjon innvirket på beitestrategien, sammenlignet vi to norske vill-reinflokker, Knutshø i utmerket fysisk kondisjon og Hardangervidda i dårlig fysisk kondisjon før og etter forstyrrelser av jegere. Begge flokker er regelmessig jaktet på (menneske har vært naturlig predator på rein siden førhistorisk tid). De velnærte rein på Knutshø var 30% tyngre enn sine artsfeller på Hardangervidda ved starten av jaktsesongen sent i august. Før jakten beitet de mindre og gikk mer, d.v.s. var mer selektive enn Hardangerviddareinen. Disse var energetisk sett i en dårligere forfatning, beitet mer og brukte mindre tid både til å gå mellom beiteområdene og til å stå. Etter å ha blitt utsatt for forstyrrelser av jegere, samlet Knutshøreinen seg til større grupper enn før jakten og sto mer vaktsomme. Hardangerviddareinen derimot, brukte den samme minimumstid til beiting, men gikk signifikant mer enn før jakten. Den brukte heller nesten ingen tid til å stå i ro. Hyppigheten av forstyrrelser var ikke signifikant forskjellig mellom de to grupper og deres bevegelses-hastighet etter forstyrrelse var den samme. Jegernes jaktsuksess i form av fellinger var også den samme i de to områder. Energiutgiftene, målt som relativt tap av kroppsvekt gjennom jaktsesongen, var høyere for Hardangerviddareinen med dårligere ernæringsstatus i startfasen. For begge flokker var energiutgiftene høyere sammenlignet med en mindre forstyrret reinflokk (Forelhogna). Vi tror at, selv om det å stå stille og vaktsomt i samlet flokk er risikofylt, så er det enda mer risikofylt å bevege seg, noe som dog kan være mer lønnsomt, om de finner et bedre beiteområde. Mer velfødd Knutshørein, som samlet seg og sto i ro, bevarte mer av sin allerede opplagrede næringsenergi, noe som minimaliserer tidsforbruk til næringssøk og som er en risikoavvergende strategi. Hardangerviddarein, som var i dårligere hold, økte tiden for beitesøk i en grad som antyder en mer risikofylt strategi under stresspåvirk-ning for å maksimalisere beiteopptak.Ihmisen aiheuttaman håirinnån vaikutus eri kuntoisten villi¬peurojen aktiivisuuteen.Abstract in Finnish / Yhteenveto: Vertasimme kahta norjalaista villipeuralaumaa, Knutshoen erittåin hyvåkuntoista ja Hardanger-viddan huonokuntoista laumaa. Ennen ja jålkeen metsåståjien håirinnån testasimme vaikuttaako kunto peu-rojen ravinnon kåyttoon stressin aikana. Molempia laumoja on metsåstetty såånnollisesti (ihminen on olut peurojen luontainen vihollin je esihistoriaaalisista ajoista alkaen). Hyvåkuntoisessa Knutshoen laumassa peurat olivat noin 30% suurempia metsastyskauden alkaessa elokuun lopulla. Ennen hårinitåå ne laidunsi-vat våhån, vaelsivat enemmån ja olivat valikoivampi kuin Hardangerviddan peurat, jotka olivat energeetti-sesti heikommassa kunnossa ja laidunsivat merkitsevåsti enemmån ja kuluttivat våhemmån aikaa liikkumi-seen eri laidunalueiden vålillå ja my os seisomiseen. Metsåstyksen alettua Knutshoen peurat kokoontiuvat suurempiin ryhmiin kuin aikaisemmin ja sesoskeli-vat pelokkaina enemån. Hardangerviddan peurat kåyttivåt puolestaan våhån aikaa ruokailuun mutta liikkui-vat merkitsevåsti enemmån eivåtkå kåyttåneet juuri aikaa seisomiseen. Håiriotilanteiden mååriss å eri laumojen vålillå ei ollut tilastollista merkitsevyyttå ja niiden liikkumisno-peudet håiroiden jålkeen olivat samanlaiset. Metsåståjien saaliit oliva samanlaiset nåillå kahdella alueella. Energian kulutus mitattuna suhteellisena painon menetysenå metsåstysaikana oli suurempi jo låhtovaiheessa heikompikuntoisimmilla Hardangerviddan peuroilla, ja se oli my os suurempi molemmilla laumoilla kuin våhemmån håirityllå laumalla (Forelhogna). Me oletamme, ettå sesominen ja håirintå isoissa laumoissa on riskitekijå. Vielå suurempi riski on liik-kua, mutta potentiaalisesti se on parempi, jos hyviå laidunalueita lovtyy. Hyvåkuntoiset Knutshoen peurat, jotka kokoontuivat ja sesoivat hiljaa, sååstivåt jo koottuja energiavarastoja. Hardangerviddan peurat, jotka olivat huonommassa kunnossa, lisåsivåt suuresti vaellusta. Stressin aikana on hy vin mahdollista, ettå peurat ei våt voi maksimoida ravinnon kåyton strategiaa

Habitat Selection by Large Wild Ungulates and Some Aspects of the Energy Flow in a Sub-tropical African Savanna Woodland Ecosystem

A study of habitat selection by large wild ungulates was carried out on a 50 cm2 area in the sub-tropical Lowveld region of eastern Transvaal province, South Africa. Estimations were made of herbaceous forage net productivity and ungulate secondary productivity on the same area. Fourteen vegetation types, varying in composition and structure from open savanna to dense woodland, were delineated by association analysis. Structural and vegetational characteristics which were considered to influence ungulate distribution were measured within each vegetation type. The study area supported resident populations of seven ungulate species during the wet season; drv season densities were higher due to population influxes from surrounding areas. Densities ranged from 13 to 67 animals per km2, with impala making up from 40 to 70 percent of the total population, wildebeest 10 to 40 percent, and lesser proportions of giraffe, zebra, kudu, warthog and waterbuck. Savanna vegetation types supported total densities of up to 185 animals/km2, while wooded types support fewer animals. Waterbuck were the most selective of the ungulates and concentrated mainly in the riparian woodland. Wildebeest, zebra and giraffe made variable use of savanna and open woodland types. Warthog preferred savanna types and avoided woodland. Impala were less selective, and kudu showed no habitat preferences. Ungulate distribution was related to several habitat characteristics, and the key factors were found to differ in each case. Each species had a unique combination of habitat characteristics to which it responded in linear fashion, and this was considered to be the way in which ungulates avoided competition by achieving spatial separation. Herbaceous forage standing crops and net production were functions of vegetation composition, soil types, rainfall and extent of ungulate utilization. Standing crops ranged from 350 to 4104 kgs/ha air-dried forage. Net primary production ranged from zero to 2719 kgs/ha; vegetation types on sandy soils did not produce in years with poor precipitation. Ungulates consumed about one-fourth of the herbaceous net primary production during the wet season and more than four-fifths during the course of a full year. Ungulate biomass on the area averaged about 40 kg/ha during the wet season and 65 kg/ha in the dry season, but biomasses varied a great deal with vegetation type, ungulate population species coMposition and seasonal densities. Ungulate secondary product ion varied correspondingly and ranged from 1.3 x 10-3 kcal/m2 per day to 4.8 x 10-3 kcals/m2 per day. Overall secondary production rate for the 2-year study period was 0.97 kcals/m2 per year, produced from a mean standing crop of 7.46 kcal/m2

Animal hygiene and sustainable livestock production: impact of ground water contamination with arsenic

There is a growing concern all over the world about contamination of ground water with Arsenic. One of the major repercussions of arsenic contamination is degradation of animal hygiene that ultimately affects sustainable livestock production. The reports suggest that concentration of Arsenic in ground water of twenty one countries is well above the guideline values. Use of such contaminated water for animal husbandry and livestock production compromises with the hygienic value of animal products. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop low cost treatment technologies for reducing the level of arsenic in ground water to maintain the hygiene and sustainability of livestock production. Most of the traditional treatment technologies are costly and less effective in reducing arsenic concentration to safer limits. Therefore, during present study, an attempt was made to design a low-cost algal adsorbent based filtration unit consisting of polyurethane columns with entrapped algal adsorbents. The column was made of adsorbents of algal origin like agar-agar, alginic acid, calcium alginate and Spirulina platensis biomass entrapped in polyurethane foam matrix. The performance of the column was assessed in terms of removal efficiency and the quantity of metal sequestered in unit time interval. The results from the study the show that algal biosorbents and S. platensis biomass combination has a capacity to adsorbed arsenic from aqueous solution. The simple design, easy fabrication and no energy requirement for the operation of the filtration unit developed under the present study is suitable to rural areas where arsenic contamination of ground water is adversely affecting the animal hygiene and sustained livestock production

Optimisation of Species Selection at Prinslust Game Farm

Selecting the best combination of scarce game that will maximize profit over a specific tim

Comparative Economics of Cattle and Wildlife Ranching in the Zimbabwe Midlands

The economics of ranches in the Zimbabwe Midlands, generating income from cattle, or wildlife, or both, were compared during 1989/90 to test the claim that wildlife ranching can generate greater profits than cattle ranching on semi-arid African savannas. Both financial (market) prices and economic prices (opportunity cost) were used. Financial data were obtained from 15 cattle, 7 wildlife and 13 mixed ranches in four areas with wildlife and from 15 cattle ranches in two areas with sparse wildlife. Estimates of economic prices were obtained from official data. In the first paper, gross revenues, costs, net revenues, and capital investments of each ranch type were compared. Cattle ranches in the areas with sparse wildlife provided the greatest net revenues while only mixed ranches were financially profitable in areas with abundant wildlife. Wildlife ranches had the least capital investments. In the second paper a policy analysis matrix was used to compare financial and economic profitability. Excluding policy interventions, cattle ranches in areas with sparse wildlife were most profitable. Negative financial-economic profit differences showed that all ranchers faced production disincentives, but cattle ranchers were affected the most. In the third paper an attempt was made to quantify the cost of lost rangeland productivity due to overstocking. Carrying capacities and stocking rates were estimated and a range of overstocking costs was used. Cattle ranches appeared to be overstocked while wildlife ranches were not. Thus the larger economic profit of cattle versus wildlife ranches decreased when range productivity loss increased. The last paper compared the relative efficiency of cattle, wildlife, and mixed ranches from the financial perspective (using the private cost ratio) and from the national perspective (using the domestic resource cost). While few ranches were financially efficient, cattle ranches with sparse wildlife and mixed and wildlife operations were found to be economically efficient when overstocking costs were not charged. With increased rangeland sensitivity to overstocking, the probability of economic inefficiency increased more for cattle than mixed or wildlife ranches. This study did not corroborate the claim that wildlife ranching is more profitable or efficient than cattle ranching in semi-arid African savannas

Classification of worldwide bovine tuberculosis risk factors in cattle: a stratified approach

The worldwide status of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) as a zoonosis remains of great concern. This article reviews the main risk factors for bTB in cattle based on a three-level classification: animal, herd and region/country level. A distinction is also made, whenever possible, between situations in developed and developing countries as the difference of context might have consequences in terms of risk of bTB. Recommendations are suggested to animal health professionals and scientists directly involved in the control and prevention of bTB in cattle. The determination of Millenium Development Goals for bTB is proposed to improve the control/eradication of the disease worldwide

Comprehensive Serology Based on a Peptide ELISA to Assess the Prevalence of Closely Related Equine Herpesviruses in Zoo and Wild Animals

Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) causes respiratory disorders and abortion in equids while EHV-1 regularly causes equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy (EHM), a stroke-like syndrome following endothelial cell infection in horses. Both EHV-1 and EHV-9 infections of non-definitive hosts often result in neuronal infection and high case fatality rates. Hence, EHV-1 and EHV-9 are somewhat unusual herpesviruses and lack strict host specificity, and the true extent of their host ranges have remained unclear. In order to determine the seroprevalence of EHV-1 and EHV-9, a sensitive and specific peptide-based ELISA was developed and applied to 428 sera from captive and wild animals representing 30 species in 12 families and five orders. Members of the Equidae, Rhinocerotidae and Bovidae were serologically positive for EHV-1 and EHV-9. The prevalence of EHV-1 in the sampled wild zebra populations was significantly higher than in zoos suggesting captivity may reduce exposure to EHV-1. Furthermore, the seroprevalence for EHV-1 was significantly higher than for EHV-9 in zebras. In contrast, EHV-9 antibody prevalence was high in captive and wild African rhinoceros species suggesting that they may serve as a reservoir or natural host for EHV-9. Thus, EHV-1 and EHV-9 have a broad host range favoring African herbivores and may have acquired novel natural hosts in ecosystems where wild equids are common and are in close contact with other perissodactyls