Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions and Tourist Behaviors: A Review and Conceptual Framework

This paper develops a conceptual framework for analyzing tourist behaviors and identifies three categories of behaviors based on the applications of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and the processes underlying these influences. Our findings indicate that tourist behaviors in the Before-Travel, During-Travel, and After-Travel stages differ significantly in terms of the applicability and process through which Hofstede’s cultural dimensions operate. The results of our analysis suggest three categories of behavioral patterns, namely, “Social Interaction Driven Travel Behaviors,” (SID), “Risk Tendencies Driven Travel Behaviors,” (RTD), and “Collectivity Orientation Driven Travel Behaviors,” (COD). SID relates to the evaluation of travel experiences in the after-travel stage. The dominant cultural values associated with SID are Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, and Power Distance. These three values act either independently or in pairs or all three together. RTD relates to the consumption of travel products in the during-travel stage, and COD relates to the formation of travel preferences in the before-travel stage. Individualism/Collectivism and Uncertainty Avoidance are associated with both RTD and COD. However, the underlying processes differ for these two categories of travel behaviors. In addition to their independent influences on travel behaviors, these two values associated with RTD and COD also have an interactive effect. For RTD, the Uncertainty Avoidance motive determines the Individualism/Collectivism outcome, whereas, for COD, the opposite is true: the Individualism/Collectivism determines the Uncertainty Avoidance outcome. The paper also discusses the application of a fifth cultural dimension, Confucian Dynamism (short-term versus long-term orientation), for the study of tourists’ behaviors.Hofstede’s cultural dimensions; tourist behaviors; traveller’s behaviors; Confucian Dynamism

The reliability-based stochastic transit assignment problem with elastic demand

This paper examines the reliability-based stochastic transit assignment problem with elastic demand. A Variational Inequality (VI) model for this problem is developed. The VI model considers capacity, waiting time and in-vehicle travel time as stochastic variables, and includes Spiess and Florian’s (1989) and de Cea and Fernández’s (1993) models as special cases. A reliability-based stochastic user equilibrium condition is defined to capture the route choice behavior of passengers. To illustrate the properties of the VI model, numerical studies were conducted on de Cea and Fernández’s (1993) network. The studies also show that Spiess and Florian’s and de Cea and Fernández’s models can overestimate the system performance substantially.postprin

Principal–Agent Relationship Within a Cruise Supply Chain Model for China

Changes in travelers’ booking habits and the evolution of technology have come to threaten the existence of traditional travel agents (TAs). However, the cruise industry still relies heavily on TAs as its main distribution channel. A qualitative study was conducted to investigate the networks, relationships, and power distribution between cruise companies and TAs using a triangulation method via a tourism supply chain model. Principal–agent (P-A) theory was taken as the framework to describe various parties’ relationships and roles. Several TA business models were identified, including group blocks (i.e., guaranteed and nonguaranteed) and charter cruises (i.e., retail or resale and corporate; meetings, incentives, conferences, and exhibitions). Results show an imbalance of power between parties due to unique business practices and customer preferences in Mainland China. Principals (i.e., cruise companies) were found to rely excessively on agents (i.e., TAs) to create demand, with the growing number of cruise lines leading agents to overpower principals. The alliance among TAs further affected the principal–agent relationship. A refined tourism supply chain model tailored to the cruise industry is thus proposed herein; this cruise supply chain model simplifies the complicated business network relationships between cruise companies and TAs in China

A study of travel behavior, travel preferences, and subjective well-being of older persons in Hong Kong

Demographic ageing of the population is now well established in Hong Kong and, as elsewhere, is raising increasing concerns about the basic needs and the well-being of older persons. Older individuals vary considerably and may try to enhance their well-being in different ways by a range of leisure activities. The gradually improving financial and physical status suggests travel as a potential leisure activity which might enhance individual well-being and quality of life of older persons. Previous research about travel has mainly involved marketing and sociological perspectives. The market research to date for investigating customer values of tourism and typologies of tourists in sociological studies largely ignored the subjective, dynamic, and intangible components of consumption experience. These components, however, are important for understanding travel needs of older persons. The aims of the current study were therefore to identify the characteristics of travel behavior and the main factors that contribute to a pleasurable trip of older persons to investigate travel preferences and travel needs of older persons. The concept of subjective well-being (SWB) which focuses on the positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction was found to be useful for understanding the conditions under which travel is desirable to older persons. Two focus groups were conducted to provide insights for the initial design of an in-depth questionnaire survey of 25 older persons age over 60 or above. Inclusion criteria were that respondents would perceive themselves to be able to travel financially and physically before they completed individual face-to-face interviews. By purposive sampling, respondents were selected from urban areas in Hong Kong from sources including social organizations, the researcher’s personal networks, a church, a university, parks, a shopping mall, and public areas in government buildings. After collecting and analyzing the data referring to principles of grounded theory, four patterns of travel behavior and outcome of travel regarding to individual well-being were found. Six aspects of travel preferences and nine factors which contribute to a pleasurable trip were identified. Travel needs of older persons were further investigated and implications for providing travel services for older persons to enhance their well-being were discussed

Travelers' Philanthropy Handbook

Offers a detailed guide to contributing time, talent, and treasure to local projects beyond what is generated via normal tourism. Profiles various organizations' approaches and best practices for businesses, communities and local groups, and travelers

Backpacking In The Digital Age: Ethnographic Perspectives From Latin America

My thesis ethnographically examines the changing nature of backpacking for Westerners in Latin America amid a proliferation of mobile computing and social networking. While anthropological and sociocultural research on tourism is extensive, the social scientific literature on backpacking has, thus far, been largely unconcerned with Western Hemisphere countries and the effects of digital technology on this mode of travel. Recent findings suggest, however, that backpacking has currently moved beyond its niche roots as a subculture of independent traveling into a full-fledged tourist industry. My thesis investigates the Latin American backpacking scene to better understand if this is a global trend. The available literature further suggests that today’s backpackers are represented by various subgroups including older and less budget-constrained travelers known as “flashpackers.” Despite using the backpacker infrastructure, flashpackers’ disposable income and relatively expensive equipment places them somewhat beyond traditional backpacker categories. Drawing on ethnographic data collected over two separate multi-sited field sessions in Nicaragua, Honduras, and Colombia, I document the recent experiences of backpackers and flashpackers and evaluate how digital technologies inform and affect their travels

‘Unpacking’ young travellers’ needs to enhance the attractiveness of package tours

This paper presents the findings of a study which adapts the Travel Need Model established from past literature to gain insights on the three different travel needs which predicted to influence the needs of young travellers towards a package tour namely, travel motives, travel behaviour and travel barriers. Data were collected from 200 respondents (young travellers) and was quantitatively analyzed using SPSS to see the relationship between the three independent variables against the dependent variable. Surprisingly, the results show that all three different travel needs influenced the attractiveness of package tours. It is concluded that having a better understanding of the travel needs of young travellers will enable tour operators in Malaysia to improve and update their package tours to be more attractive simultaneously attract more young travellers to travel with them. This study could enhance the existing literature and give insights to academician, researchers and tour operators