Comprehensive summary of solid oxide fuel cell control : a state-of-the-art review

Hydrogen energy is a promising renewable resource for the sustainable development of society. As a key member of the fuel cell (FC) family, the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) has attracted a lot of attention because of characteristics such as having various sources as fuel and high energy conversion efficiency, and being pollution-free. SOFC is a highly coupled, nonlinear, and multivariable complex system, and thus it is very important to design an appropriate control strategy for an SOFC system to ensure its safe, reliable, and efficient operation. This paper undertakes a comprehensive review and detailed summary of the state-of-the-art control approaches of SOFC. These approaches are divided into eight categories of control: proportional integral differential (PID), adaptive (APC), robust, model predictive (MPC), fuzzy logic (FLC), fault-tolerant (FTC), intelligent and observer-based. The SOFC control approaches are carefully evaluated in terms of objective, design, application/scenario, robustness, complexity, and accuracy. Finally, five perspectives are proposed for future research directions

Recent Progress in Some Aircraft Technologies

The book describes the recent progress in some engine technologies and active flow control and morphing technologies and in topics related to aeroacoustics and aircraft controllers. Both the researchers and students should find the material useful in their work

Advanced spacecraft valve technology compilation. Volume 1 - Mechanical controls

Advanced mechanical valves and controls for liquid propellant rocket engines for space flights up to ten year

Optimized state feedback regulation of 3DOF helicopter system via extremum seeking

In this paper, an optimized state feedback regulation of a 3 degree of freedom (DOF) helicopter is designed via extremum seeking (ES) technique. Multi-parameter ES is applied to optimize the tracking performance via tuning State Vector Feedback with Integration of the Control Error (SVFBICE). Discrete multivariable version of ES is developed to minimize a cost function that measures the performance of the controller. The cost function is a function of the error between the actual and desired axis positions. The controller parameters are updated online as the optimization takes place. This method significantly decreases the time in obtaining optimal controller parameters. Simulations were conducted for the online optimization under both fixed and varying operating conditions. The results demonstrate the usefulness of using ES for preserving the maximum attainable performance

Advanced Modeling, Control, and Optimization Methods in Power Hybrid Systems - 2021

The climate changes that are becoming visible today are a challenge for the global research community. In this context, renewable energy sources, fuel cell systems and other energy generating sources must be optimally combined and connected to the grid system using advanced energy transaction methods. As this reprint presents the latest solutions in the implementation of fuel cell and renewable energy in mobile and stationary applications such as hybrid and microgrid power systems based on the Energy Internet, blockchain technology and smart contracts, we hope that they will be of interest to readers working in the related fields mentioned above

Sigma-Delta control of charge trapping in heterogeneous devices

Dielectric charging represents a major reliability issue in a variety of semiconductor devices. The accumulation of charge in dielectric layers of a device often alters its performance, affecting its circuital features and even reducing its effective lifetime. Although several contributions have been made in order to mitigate the undesired effects of charge trapping on circuit performance, dielectric charge trapping still remains an open reliability issue in several applications. The research work underlying this Thesis mainly focuses on the design, analysis and experimental validation of control strategies to compensate dielectric charging in heterogeneous devices. These control methods are based on the application of specifically designed voltage waveforms that produce complementary effects on the charge dynamics. Using sigma-delta loops, these controls allow to set and maintain, within some limits, the net trapped charge in the dielectric to desired levels that can be changed with time. This allows mitigating long-term reliability issues such as capacitance-voltage (C-V) shifts in MOS and MIM capacitors. Additionally, the bit streams generated by the control loops provide real-time information on the evolution of the trapped charge. The proposed controls also allow compensating the effects of the charge trapping due to external disturbances such as radiation. This has been demonstrated experimentally with MOS capacitors subjected to various types of ionizing radiation (X-rays and gamma rays) while a charge control is being applied. This approach opens up the possibility of establishing techniques for active compensation of radiation-induced charge in MOS structures as well as a new strategy for radiation sensing. A modeling strategy to characterize the dynamics of the dielectric charge in MOS capacitors is also presented. The diffusive nature of the charge trapping phenomena allows their behavioral characterization using Diffusive Representation tools. The experiments carried out demonstrate a very good matching between the predictions of the model and the experimental results obtained. The time variations in the charge dynamics due to changes in the volatges applied and/or due to external disturbances have been also investigated and modeled. Moreover, the charge dynamics of MOS capacitors under sigma-delta control is analyzed using the tools of Sliding Mode Controllers for an infinite sampling frequency approximation. A phenomenological analytical model is obtained which allows to predict and analyze the sequence of control signals. This model has been successfully validated with experimental data. Finally, the above control strategies are extended to other devices such as eMIM capacitors and perovskite solar cells. Preliminary results including open loop and closed loop control experiments are presented. These results demonstrate that the application of the controls allows to set and stabilize both the C-V characteristic of an eMIM capacitor and the current-voltage characteristic (J-V) of a perovskite solar cell.La carga atrapada en dieléctricos suele implicar un problema importante de fiabilidad en muchos dispositivos semiconductores. La acumulación de dicha carga, normalmente provocada por las tensiones aplicadas durante el uso del dispositivo, suele alterar el rendimiento de éste con el tiempo, afectar sus prestaciones a nivel de circuital e, incluso, reducir su vida útil. Aunque durante años se han realizado muchos trabajos para mitigar sus efectos no deseados, sobre todo a nivel circuital, la carga atrapada en dieléctricos sigue siendo un problema abierto que frena la aplicabilidad práctica de algunos dispositivos. El trabajo de investigación realizado en esta Tesis se centra principalmente en el diseño, análisis y validación experimental de estrategias de control para compensar la carga atrapada en dieléctricos de diversos tipos de dispositivos, incluyendo condensadores MOS, condensadores MIM fabricados con nanotecnología y dispositivos basados en perovskitas. Los controles propuestos se basan en utilizar formas de onda de tensión, específicamente diseñadas, que producen efectos complementarios en la dinámica de la carga. Mediante el uso de lazos sigma-delta, estos controles permiten establecer y mantener, dentro de unos límites, la carga neta atrapada en el dieléctrico a valores prefijados, que pueden cambiarse con el tiempo. Esto permite mitigar problemas de fiabilidad a largo plazo como por ejemplo las derivas de la curva capacidad-tensión (C-V) en condensadores MOS y MIM. Adicionalmente, las tramas de bits generadas por los lazos de control proporcionan información en tiempo real sobre la evolución de la carga. Los controles propuestos permiten también compensar los efectos de la carga atrapada en dieléctricos debida a perturbaciones externas como la radiación. Esto se ha demostrado experimentalmente con condesadores MOS sometidos a diversos tipos de radiación ionizante (rayos X y gamma) mientras se les aplicaba un control de carga. Este resultado abre la posibilidad tanto de establecer técnicas de compensación activa de carga inducida por radiación en estructuras MOS, como una nueva estrategia de sensado de radiación. Se presenta también una estrategia de modelado para caracterizar la dinámica de la carga dieléctrica en condensadores MOS. La naturaleza difusiva de los fenómenos de captura y eliminación de carga en dieléctricos permite caracterizar dichos fenómenos empleando herramientas de Representación Difusiva. Los experimentos realizados demuestran una muy buena correspondencia entre las predicciones del modelo y los resultados experimentales obtenidos. Se muestra también como las variaciones temporales de los modelos son debidas a cambios en las formas de onda de actuación del dispositivo y/o a perturbaciones externas. Además, la dinámica de carga en condensadores MOS bajo control sigma-delta se analiza utilizando herramientas de control en modo deslizante (SMC), considerando la aproximación de frecuencia de muestreo infinita. Con ello se obtiene un modelo analítico simplificado que permite predecir y analizar con éxito la secuencia de señales de control. Este modelo se ha validado satisfactoriamente con datos experimentales. Finalmente, las estrategias de control anteriores se han extendido a otros dispositivos susceptibles de sufrir efectos de carga atrapada que pueden afectar su fiabilidad. Así, se han llevado a cabo experimentos preliminares cuyos resultados demuestran que la aplicación de controles de carga permite controlar y estabilizar la característica C-V de un condensador eMIM y la característica corriente-tensión (J-V) de una célula solar basada en perovskitas

Sigma-Delta control of charge trapping in heterogeneous devices

Dielectric charging represents a major reliability issue in a variety of semiconductor devices. The accumulation of charge in dielectric layers of a device often alters its performance, affecting its circuital features and even reducing its effective lifetime. Although several contributions have been made in order to mitigate the undesired effects of charge trapping on circuit performance, dielectric charge trapping still remains an open reliability issue in several applications. The research work underlying this Thesis mainly focuses on the design, analysis and experimental validation of control strategies to compensate dielectric charging in heterogeneous devices. These control methods are based on the application of specifically designed voltage waveforms that produce complementary effects on the charge dynamics. Using sigma-delta loops, these controls allow to set and maintain, within some limits, the net trapped charge in the dielectric to desired levels that can be changed with time. This allows mitigating long-term reliability issues such as capacitance-voltage (C-V) shifts in MOS and MIM capacitors. Additionally, the bit streams generated by the control loops provide real-time information on the evolution of the trapped charge. The proposed controls also allow compensating the effects of the charge trapping due to external disturbances such as radiation. This has been demonstrated experimentally with MOS capacitors subjected to various types of ionizing radiation (X-rays and gamma rays) while a charge control is being applied. This approach opens up the possibility of establishing techniques for active compensation of radiation-induced charge in MOS structures as well as a new strategy for radiation sensing. A modeling strategy to characterize the dynamics of the dielectric charge in MOS capacitors is also presented. The diffusive nature of the charge trapping phenomena allows their behavioral characterization using Diffusive Representation tools. The experiments carried out demonstrate a very good matching between the predictions of the model and the experimental results obtained. The time variations in the charge dynamics due to changes in the volatges applied and/or due to external disturbances have been also investigated and modeled. Moreover, the charge dynamics of MOS capacitors under sigma-delta control is analyzed using the tools of Sliding Mode Controllers for an infinite sampling frequency approximation. A phenomenological analytical model is obtained which allows to predict and analyze the sequence of control signals. This model has been successfully validated with experimental data. Finally, the above control strategies are extended to other devices such as eMIM capacitors and perovskite solar cells. Preliminary results including open loop and closed loop control experiments are presented. These results demonstrate that the application of the controls allows to set and stabilize both the C-V characteristic of an eMIM capacitor and the current-voltage characteristic (J-V) of a perovskite solar cell.La carga atrapada en dieléctricos suele implicar un problema importante de fiabilidad en muchos dispositivos semiconductores. La acumulación de dicha carga, normalmente provocada por las tensiones aplicadas durante el uso del dispositivo, suele alterar el rendimiento de éste con el tiempo, afectar sus prestaciones a nivel de circuital e, incluso, reducir su vida útil. Aunque durante años se han realizado muchos trabajos para mitigar sus efectos no deseados, sobre todo a nivel circuital, la carga atrapada en dieléctricos sigue siendo un problema abierto que frena la aplicabilidad práctica de algunos dispositivos. El trabajo de investigación realizado en esta Tesis se centra principalmente en el diseño, análisis y validación experimental de estrategias de control para compensar la carga atrapada en dieléctricos de diversos tipos de dispositivos, incluyendo condensadores MOS, condensadores MIM fabricados con nanotecnología y dispositivos basados en perovskitas. Los controles propuestos se basan en utilizar formas de onda de tensión, específicamente diseñadas, que producen efectos complementarios en la dinámica de la carga. Mediante el uso de lazos sigma-delta, estos controles permiten establecer y mantener, dentro de unos límites, la carga neta atrapada en el dieléctrico a valores prefijados, que pueden cambiarse con el tiempo. Esto permite mitigar problemas de fiabilidad a largo plazo como por ejemplo las derivas de la curva capacidad-tensión (C-V) en condensadores MOS y MIM. Adicionalmente, las tramas de bits generadas por los lazos de control proporcionan información en tiempo real sobre la evolución de la carga. Los controles propuestos permiten también compensar los efectos de la carga atrapada en dieléctricos debida a perturbaciones externas como la radiación. Esto se ha demostrado experimentalmente con condesadores MOS sometidos a diversos tipos de radiación ionizante (rayos X y gamma) mientras se les aplicaba un control de carga. Este resultado abre la posibilidad tanto de establecer técnicas de compensación activa de carga inducida por radiación en estructuras MOS, como una nueva estrategia de sensado de radiación. Se presenta también una estrategia de modelado para caracterizar la dinámica de la carga dieléctrica en condensadores MOS. La naturaleza difusiva de los fenómenos de captura y eliminación de carga en dieléctricos permite caracterizar dichos fenómenos empleando herramientas de Representación Difusiva. Los experimentos realizados demuestran una muy buena correspondencia entre las predicciones del modelo y los resultados experimentales obtenidos. Se muestra también como las variaciones temporales de los modelos son debidas a cambios en las formas de onda de actuación del dispositivo y/o a perturbaciones externas. Además, la dinámica de carga en condensadores MOS bajo control sigma-delta se analiza utilizando herramientas de control en modo deslizante (SMC), considerando la aproximación de frecuencia de muestreo infinita. Con ello se obtiene un modelo analítico simplificado que permite predecir y analizar con éxito la secuencia de señales de control. Este modelo se ha validado satisfactoriamente con datos experimentales. Finalmente, las estrategias de control anteriores se han extendido a otros dispositivos susceptibles de sufrir efectos de carga atrapada que pueden afectar su fiabilidad. Así, se han llevado a cabo experimentos preliminares cuyos resultados demuestran que la aplicación de controles de carga permite controlar y estabilizar la característica C-V de un condensador eMIM y la característica corriente-tensión (J-V) de una célula solar basada en perovskitas.Postprint (published version

Selected Lessons Learned in Space Shuttle Orbiter Propulsion and Power Subsystems

Over its 30 years of space flight history, plus the nearly 10 years of design, development test and evaluation, the Space Shuttle Orbiter is full of lessons learned in all of its numerous and complex subsystems. In the current paper, only selected lessons learned in the areas of the Orbiter propulsion and power subsystems will be described. The particular Orbiter subsystems include: Auxiliary Power Unit (APU), Hydraulics and Water Spray Boiler (WSB), Mechanical Flight Controls, Main Propulsion System (MPS), Fuel Cells and Power Reactant and Storage Devices (PRSD), Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS), Reaction Control System (RCS), Electrical Power Distribution (EPDC), electrical wiring and pyrotechnics. Given the complexity and extensive history of each of these subsystems, and the limited scope of this paper, it is impossible to include most of the lessons learned; instead the attempt will be to present a selected few or key lessons, in the judgment of the authors. Each subsystem is presented separate, beginning with an overview of the hardware and their function, a short description of a few historical problems and their lessons, followed by a more comprehensive table listing of the major subsystem problems and lessons. These tables serve as a quick reference for lessons learned in each subsystem. In addition, this paper will establish common lessons across subsystems as well as concentrate on those lessons which are deemed to have the highest applicability to future space flight programs

Improved micro-contact resistance model that considers material deformation, electron transport and thin film characteristics

This paper reports on an improved analytic model forpredicting micro-contact resistance needed for designing microelectro-mechanical systems (MEMS) switches. The originalmodel had two primary considerations: 1) contact materialdeformation (i.e. elastic, plastic, or elastic-plastic) and 2) effectivecontact area radius. The model also assumed that individual aspotswere close together and that their interactions weredependent on each other which led to using the single effective aspotcontact area model. This single effective area model wasused to determine specific electron transport regions (i.e. ballistic,quasi-ballistic, or diffusive) by comparing the effective radius andthe mean free path of an electron. Using this model required thatmicro-switch contact materials be deposited, during devicefabrication, with processes ensuring low surface roughness values(i.e. sputtered films). Sputtered thin film electric contacts,however, do not behave like bulk materials and the effects of thinfilm contacts and spreading resistance must be considered. Theimproved micro-contact resistance model accounts for the twoprimary considerations above, as well as, using thin film,sputtered, electric contact