Actividades latinoamericanas en el espacio ultraterrestre en el siglo XXI: una actualización

En el siglo XXI, los países latinoamericanos han hecho esfuerzos significativos para avanzar en sus programas espaciales. Estos esfuerzos han abarcado desde una indagatoria sobre la instalación de un sistema de satélites, como es el caso en Colombia, hasta el lanzamiento de satélites con la ayuda de gobiernos extranjeros, en el caso de Brasil, Argentina y Bolivia. En todos estos casos, la falta de un marco jurídico coherente que apoye un programa espacial sólido que proporcione comunicaciones por satélite a las poblaciones más vulnerables es uno de los desafíos más apremiantes. El Consejo Asesor de Generación Espacial (SGAC) podría resolver este problema mediante un proyecto unificador que pondrá todas las mentes y desarrolladores en el objetivo común de alcanzar la autonomía espacial para América Latina.In the twenty-first century, Latin American countries have made significant efforts to advance their space programs. These efforts have ranged from inquiring about setup of a satellite system, as is the case in Colombia, to launching satellites with the aid of foreign governments, in the case of Brazil, Argentina and Bolivia. In all these cases, the lack of a coherent legal framework that supports a solid space program that provides satellite communications to the most vulnerable populations is one of the most pressing challenges. The Space Generation Advisory Council (SGAC) could solve this problem in the form of a unifying project that will put all minds and developers to work towards the common goal of achieving space autonomy for Latin America

Introductory Note to the Final Acts of the World Conference on International Telecommunications

On December 14, 2012, member states of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) approved the Final Acts of the World Conference on International Telecommunications. The ITU is the specialized agency of the United Nations fostering cooperation on information and communication technologies, and, through world conferences, it periodically revises the International Telecommunication Regulations (ITRs), a treaty the ITU adopted in 1988.2 However, in December 2012, the Final Acts, the manner in which they were approved, and the World Conference proved controversial, and these controversies will adversely affect the impact of the Final Acts and the revised ITRs on international telecommunications law

Global public-private partnerships : different perspectives

Global public-private partnerships are part of the global governance framework and influence our daily lives - yet our understanding of them is incomplete. Research has attributed the existence of these partnerships between state, market and civil society actors variously to the influence of leaders, new management ideas, resource deficits and the proliferation of issues beyond the ability of any single sector to manage. Yet explorations of these themes primarily focuses on the United Nations core agencies, and overlooks the technical international government organizations; organizations which facilitate a multitude of transactions in various policy areas between nation-states, their agencies and administrations. Personal experience with such an organization - Interpol - indicated the answer to the puzzle was incomplete. Therefore, this study was undertaken to further explore the question of why international government organizations participate in global public-private partnerships. Using case studies, this research set out to discover a better explanation for the phenomena of global public-private partnerships. Research was conducted with the International Telecommunication Union, the International Criminal Police Organization and the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property. Between them, they represented a diverse section of international policy fields - communication; police cooperation and cultural conservation. This research found that beyond the themes in the literature, global public-private partnerships are shaped by the dominant professional culture of an international government organization, and the organizational culture also uniquely inherent in each. The use of theories of professional and organizational culture has therefore filled a gap in our knowledge about this global phenomenon. Furthermore, these cultural factors also influence how the other factors are perceived and then acted upon. The end results are partnerships that comfortably fit with the beliefs, values, norms and assumptions common the respective professional and organizational culture

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ITU APPROACH TO INTERNATIONAL FREQUENCY SPECTRUM MANAGEMENT AND STANDARDIZATION PROCESSES

Mednarodna Unija za telekomunikacije (ITU) je specializirana organizacija Združenih Narodov za telekomunikacije s sedežem v Ženevi, ki med drugim skrbi za učinkovito in usklajeno upravljanje z radiofrekvenčnim spektrom (10kHz-3000GHz) in to na način, da so zagotovljene pravice in enake možnosti njegovega izkoriščanja vsem uporabnikom, državam članicam (193). Vse od njene ustanovitve leta 1865 je tehnološki napredek motiviral oblikovanje ITU mednarodnih standardov za izgradnjo in funkcioniranje telekomunikacijskih sistemov in omrežij in kasneje tudi za izkoriščanje radiofrekvenčnega spektra. Tehnološki razvoj je uravnaval dinamiko aktivnosti in pogojeval organizacijske spremembe in statutarne reforme. Strokovna priporočila pa so postala univerzalna referenca za uspešen razvoj in standardizacijo telekomunikacijskih sistemov. Pa vendar je že nekaj časa opaziti, da je učinkovitost ITU v vse večjem razkoraku z evolucijo in preobrazbo telekomunikacijskega okolja, pri čemer ni skrivnost, da so številni poskusi zadnjih let, kako uskladiti strukturo in delovanje ITU z dinamičnim razvojem okolja, bili neuspešni. Inertnost, pa tudi oportunizem različnih subjektov, je bila in je še vedno močna ovira, da bi se ITU uspešno spopadala z izzivi časa. Radiofrekvenčni spekter in orbitalne pozicije, ki pripadajo različnim radiofrekvenčnim alokacijam, so edinstvena naravna dobrina, katere usklajena in transparentna mednarodna regulativa je permanentna skrb vsake suverene države. Učinkoviti procesi standardizacije v globalnem okolju pa so ključ za uspešno pot k hitremu razvoju telekomunikacijske infrastrukture v času, ko je tehnološka konvergenčnost izbrisala meje med tehnologijo, telekomunikacijskimi sistemi in telekomunikacijskimi aplikacijami. Disertacija ponuja podrobno analizo aktivnosti ITU na dveh osrednjih segmentih, t.j. radiokomunikacije in standardizacija. Na osnovi dolgoletnega opazovanja in proučevanja dela in učinkovitosti ITU, zaključki nedvoumno kažejo na potrebo po strukturnih reformah, pot do katerih pa je zaradi politične dimenzije, ki je vedno prisotna v medvladnih organizacijah, izjemno zapletena. V sodobnem telekomunikacijskem okolju, kjer tehnološki razvoj prehiteva počasne vladne odločitve, so potrebne jasne strateške orientacije in trdna odločenost držav članic, da se pristopi k vsebinskim spremembam. S tem namenom je predstavljen tudi predlog novega konstitutivnega in organizacijskega modela ITU, katerega implementacija bi omogočila boljše pogoje za doseganje zastavljenih ciljev. Sedanje težave v funkcioniranju te specializirane organizacije OZN so v največji meri posledica njenega zaostalega organizacijskega koncepta, ki sodi v zgodovinsko okolje. Države članice imajo še vedno izključno vlogo pri pomembnih odločitvah, žal pa njihove vlade ne premorejo več strokovnega potenciala za doseganje znanstvenega napredka. V ta prostor so vstopili drugi kreativni deležniki (iz industrije in nevladnih organizacij) ki so postali gonilna sila vsega razvoja. To so tisti ki želijo ustvarjati v drugačnem okolju, kjer bodo suvereni v odločanju na področjih njihove izključne kompetentnosti. Pogosto zapletena razmerja med državami članicami z različnimi interesi, velikimi in malimi, razvitimi in manj razvitimi, sposobnimi in odsotnimi, egoističnimi in kooperativnimi – onemogočajo univerzalne rešitve, ko gre za učinkovito in transparentno uporabo radiofrekvenčnega spektra. Na področju standardizacije ICT sistemov in aplikacij so razmere še bolj zapletene, saj so ti procesi v zadnjih desetletjih spremenili vsebino zaradi potreb po hitrem regionalnem razvoju in predvsem zaradi hitrega tehnološkega napredka, kateremu tradicionalni in klasično počasni ITU pristop k standardizaciji ni mogel več slediti. Dinamika razvoja pa kliče po odprtju in inovacijah tistih, ki so teh inovacij sposobni in ki imajo za te aktivnosti tudi primerne finančne in intelektualne vire. Državne strukture so v standardizacijskih postopkih in razvoju postale irelevantne, čeprav se še vedno z veliko silo oklepajo starih prerogativov. V zadnjih dveh desetletjih se je v znanstvene študije, analize in v izpeljavo tehničnih programov nenapovedano in samovoljno vrinila še »politizacija dogovarjanja« na različnih nivojih mednarodnega tehničnega sodelovanja. Ta realnost je dodatno poslabšala razmere v sicer arhaičnih strukturah ITU. Cilj disertacije je nov pristop k mednarodni regulativi uporabe spektra in njegovi mednarodni zaščiti na način, da bo koriščenje frekvenčnega spektra kar najbolj učinkovito in usklajeno. Radiofrekvenčni spekter je univerzalna dobrina, katere uporabnost ni v lasti nikogar in kjer akademske študije in dosežki odpirajo nove dimenzije za njegovo praktično uporabo. V okolju globalnega dogovarjanja in univerzalnega izkoriščanja spektra so pomembni odgovori na spodnja vprašanja, ki nas lahko pripeljejo k novi paradigmi: Kako zagotoviti transparentnost in učinkovitost pri planiranju, razdeljevanju in dodeljevanju frekvenčnega spektra? Kako pritegniti h kreativnemu sodelovanju nove Partnerje (industrija in privatni sektor) in jim zagotoviti pogoje za inovativne rešitve v standardizaciji ICT. Kako ustvariti homogeno in konvergenčno okolje, ki bi zagotavljalo nenehno evolucijo ICT k racionalnim in globalnim usmeritvam pri določanju komunikacijske politike?The convergence of fast developing technologies (ICT), the globalisation of telecommunications in general and availability of new services, have profoundly changed the telecommunication environment and related national policies. The ITU constituencies are Member States and the Organisation strategic decisions are taken exclusively by the Governments. However, in the changing environment it became impossible to ignore the non-governmental partners’ views while discussing the global policies and action plans that should be leading to important decisions. The appearance of strategic alliances, privatization of telecommunication infrastructures and market liberalization are the phenomena that brought new elements in telecommunication development and had substantially modified the role of Governments. These phenomena influenced the Union operational model to great extent where voices of partners are claiming more balanced share in the decision making processes and rational distribution of responsibilities, i.e. between the administrations of Members States, national regulators, telecommunication operators and industry. The necessary transparency of regulatory policy together with simplified Frequency Spectrum Management and universally recognized standardisation activities may be endangered, if no constitutional reforms intervene in the next two or three plenipotentiary cycles. The situation is calling for open review of governmental responsibilities in order to make realistic projection of reforms that should allow ITU to preserve its technical sovereignty and global credibility through its important mission. The ITU structure and its mode of operation in the field of radiocommunications and ICT standardisation today appear to be archaic and not synchronized neither with the environment nor with Members and other user’s needs. National concern for harmonious development of Information and Communication Infrastructure (ICT) remain high on each Government agenda due to its substantial impact on national economies. There is strategic interest to build up and preserve well-coordinated international regulatory regime on Frequency Spectrum/Orbit Management and global/universal and transparent ICT standardisation processes. And the present thesis is a modest contribution to make it happen

Legislating for Humanity\u27s Next Step: Cultivating a Legal Framework for the Mining of Celestial Bodies

Rapid expansion in the space sector by state and private sector actors highlights the need for a new legal regulatory framework, particularly regarding property rights. The exploitation of space-based resources through the mining of asteroids is currently subject to a cold-war era international agreement that did not include clear consideration about how future off-world commercial exploitation might be regulated or property rights assigned. This article explores two empirical examples, the International Seabed Authority and the International Telecommunication Union, to determine whether they provide useful models of a future international legal framework for off-world property rights

Cybersecurity in Poland

This open access book explores the legal aspects of cybersecurity in Poland. The authors are not limited to the framework created by the NCSA (National Cybersecurity System Act – this act was the first attempt to create a legal regulation of cybersecurity and, in addition, has implemented the provisions of the NIS Directive) but may discuss a number of other issues. The book presents international and EU regulations in the field of cybersecurity and issues pertinent to combating cybercrime and cyberterrorism. Moreover, regulations concerning cybercrime in a few select European countries are presented in addition to the problem of collision of state actions in ensuring cybersecurity and human rights. The advantages of the book include a comprehensive and synthetic approach to the issues related to the cybersecurity system of the Republic of Poland, a research perspective that takes as the basic level of analysis issues related to the security of the state and citizens, and the analysis of additional issues related to cybersecurity, such as cybercrime, cyberterrorism, and the problem of collision between states ensuring security cybernetics and human rights. The book targets a wide range of readers, especially scientists and researchers, members of legislative bodies, practitioners (especially judges, prosecutors, lawyers, law enforcement officials), experts in the field of IT security, and officials of public authorities. Most authors are scholars and researchers at the War Studies University in Warsaw. Some of them work at the Academic Centre for Cybersecurity Policy – a thinktank created by the Ministry of National Defence of the Republic of Poland

Finding a Formula for Brazil: Representation and Legitimacy in Internet Governance

In the summer of 2013, Edward Snowden’s extraordinary leaks about U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) surveillance destabilized the foundations of international Internet governance. Speaking at the UN General Assembly on September 24, 2013, Brazilian President Dilma Rousseff denounced NSA spying in the strongest terms, and, together with ICANN, started planning conference in Sao Paulo in April 2014 to reinvent Internet governance. This article analyses these events and tries to make sense of what they might mean for the future of global Internet governance. It begins by looking at how the Brazil-ICANN initiative alters the political alignment of actors in the world. Second, it places these developments into a longer historical context, showing how it echoes recurring attempts to develop legitimacy and principles for Internet governance. Third, it applies critical political analysis to the process of organizing and managing the summit itself, with a particular focus on legitimacy and representation. After exploring these arrangements, the paper makes prognoses about impacts and outcomes of the meeting in Brazil. The working paper is not just meant for the usual Internet policy crowd. It will attempt to use language that can be understood by communities not immersed in these issues. Academics who study related issues but not Internet governance, as well as NGOs, business-people and government officials confused by the often-obscure debates around Internet governance will hopefully find this article a starting point for future engagement

Impact of EU duty cycle and transmission power limitations for sub-GHz LPWAN SRDs : an overview and future challenges

Long-range sub-GHz technologies such as LoRaWAN, SigFox, IEEE 802.15.4, and DASH7 are increasingly popular for academic research and daily life applications. However, especially in the European Union (EU), the use of their corresponding frequency bands are tightly regulated, since they must confirm to the short-range device (SRD) regulations. Regulations and standards for SRDs exist on various levels, from global to national, but are often a source of confusion. Not only are multiple institutes responsible for drafting legislation and regulations, depending on the type of document can these rules be informational or mandatory. Regulations also vary from region to region; for example, regulations in the United States of America (USA) rely on electrical field strength and harmonic strength, while EU regulations are based on duty cycle and maximum transmission power. A common misconception is the presence of a common 1% duty cycle, while in fact the duty cycle is frequency band-specific and can be loosened under certain circumstances. This paper clarifies the various regulations for the European region, the parties involved in drafting and enforcing regulation, and the impact on recent technologies such as SigFox, LoRaWAN, and DASH7. Furthermore, an overview is given of potential mitigation approaches to cope with the duty cycle constraints, as well as future research directions

Stakeholders\u27 Involvement and Participation in the Internet Governance Ecosystem: An African Perspective

From an African perspective, internet governance requires not only an understanding of the variability in access to and use of the internet across the continent, but also an understanding of the disparities between developed and developing countries’ abilities to effectively participate in global internet governance debates. Few developing countries participate in these debates, and even fewer are active in agenda-setting for global internet governance. This paper seeks to understand how these factors transect with the notion of multistakeholder participation as a form of governance for internet policymaking, which is often informed by assumptions from more mature markets and Western democracies. It does so by exploring the evolution of multistakeholder participation through mapping the main international and regional instruments of the internet governance ecosystem in Africa. It critically assesses the ability of current multistakeholder initiatives to provide Africans with a compass to guide them through the miasma of cybercrime, political surveillance, censorship and profiteering that threaten the openness of the internet. The paper also highlights the participatory and accountability gaps in the current status quo, ultimately asking what solutions can be devised to enhance the participation of African stakeholders in internet governance