Process based cost modeling of emerging optoelectronic interconnects : implications for material platform choice

Thesis (S.M. in Technology and Policy)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Engineering Systems Division, Technology and Policy Program, 2008.Includes bibliographical references (p. 93-96).Continuously increasing demand for processing power, storage capacity, and I/O capacity in personal computing, data network, and display interface suggests that optical interconnects may soon supplant copper not only for long distance telecommunication but also for short reach connection needs. In the search for a standard, the current debate in the optoelectronic industry is focused on the technical and economic challenges of the next generation interconnect. Technological advances over the past few years have given new strength to a silicon-technology platform for optoelectronics. The possibility of extending a mature and high-yield Si CMOS manufacturing platform of the electronic industry into the optical domain is an area of intensive interest. Introducing new photonic materials and processes into the mature electronic industry involves a convergence of knowledge between the optoelectronics and semiconductor IC manufacturers. To address some of the technical, market, and organizational uncertainties with the Si platform, this research explores the economic viability and operational hurdles of manufacturing a 1310 nm, 100G Ethernet LAN transceiver. This analysis is carried out using the process-based cost modeling method. Four transceiver designs ranging from the most discrete to a high level of integration are considered on both InP and Si platforms. On the macro-level, this research also explores possible electronic-photonic convergence across industries through a multi-organization, exploratory roadmapping effort. Results have shown 1) integration provides a cost advantage within each material platform.(cont.) This economic competitiveness is due to cost savings associated with the elimination of discrete components and assembly steps; 2) a total cost comparison across material platforms indicates at low volume (less than 1.1 million annual units), the InP material platform is preferred, while at high volume (greater than 3 million annual units) the Si material platform is preferred. Furthermore, this study maps out the production cost at each technology and volume projection, and then compares this cost with price expectation to determine the viability of the transceiver market in the datacom and computing industry. Results indicate that annual production volumes must be in the tens of millions unit range to provide the minimum economies of scale necessary for designs to meet the trigger price. These results highlight that standards and a set of common language are essential to enable converging technology markets.by Shan Liu.S.M

Silicon-organic hybrid (SOH) modulators for intensity-modulation / direct-detection links with line rates of up to 120 Gbit/s

High-speed interconnects in data-center and campus-area networks crucially rely on efficient and technically simple transmission techniques that use intensity modulation and direct detection (IM/DD) to bridge distances of up to a few kilometers. This requires electro-optic modulators that combine low operation voltages with large modulation bandwidth and that can be operated at high symbol rates using integrated drive circuits. Here we explore the potential of silicon-organic hybrid (SOH) Mach-Zehnder modulators (MZM) for generating high-speed IM/DD signals at line rates of up to 120 Gbit/s. Using a SiGe BiCMOS signal-conditioning chip, we demonstrate that intensity-modulated duobinary (IDB) signaling allows to efficiently use the electrical bandwidth, thereby enabling line rates of up to 100 Gbit/s at bit error ratios (BER) of 8.5 x 10(-5). This is the highest data rate achieved so far using a silicon-based MZM in combination with a dedicated signal-conditioning integrated circuit (IC). We further show four-level pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM4) at lines rates of up to 120 Gbit/s (BER = 3.2 x 10(-3)) using a high-speed arbitrary-waveform generator and a 0.5 mm long MZM. This is the highest data rate hitherto achieved with a sub-millimeter MZM on the silicon photonic platform. (C) 2017 Optical Society of Americ

Silicon-organic hybrid electro-optic modulators for high-speed communication systems

Der Austausch von Informationen über globale Kommunikationsnetze ist für viele alltägliche Lebensbereiche selbstverständlich geworden. Die Informationen werden dabei mit immer weiter wachsender Geschwindigkeit und in zunehmendem Umfang geteilt. Durch den enormen Anstieg des Datenverkehrs kommt verstärkt optische Nachrichtentechnik zum Einsatz. Sie bietet gegenüber elektronischen Übertragungsverfahren entscheidende Vorteile bezüglich der Übertragungsdistanz und -kapazität.Wurde optische Übertragung zunächst nur für die Kommunikation über weite Strecken eingesetzt, machen sich die Nachteile elektronischer Verfahren mit dem stark anwachsenden Datenverkehr auch zunehmend über kürzere Strecken bemerkbar, sodass auch dort vermehrt optische Kommunikationssysteme zum Einsatz kommen. Insgesamt nimmt die Anzahl der photonischen Komponenten, die in Kommunikationsanwendungen eingesetzt werden, dadurch rapide zu. Dies führt dazu, dass die einzelnen Bauteile kostengünstiger, energieeffizienter sowie kompakter werden müssen. Ähnlich zur Entwicklung in der Mikroelektronik, wo immer stärkere Miniaturisierung zu einer dramatischen Leistungssteigerung bei gleichzeitiger Reduktion von Kosten, Platzbedarf und Energieverbrauch geführt hat, soll dies in der Photonik durch die Anwendung von integrierten photonischen Schaltkreisen erreicht werden. Integrierte photonische Schaltkreise zeichnen sich durch hohe Funktionalität bei geringem Platzbedarf aus und ermöglichen eine kostengünstige Massenfertigung. Sie sind daher von erheblichem wissenschaftlichen, technischen und kommerziellen Interesse. Insbesondere die Integration auf Siliziumsubstraten verspricht dabei hohe Integrationsdichten, kombiniert mit der Möglichkeit zur Ko-Integration photonischer und elektronischer Schaltkreise. Ein entscheidender Vorteil ist dabei, dass Silizium seit Jahrzehnten das dominierende Material in der Halbleiterindustrie und eines der häufigsten Elemente der Erdkruste ist. Vorteilhaft ist also neben der guten Verfügbarkeit des Materials, insbesondere die Existenz von etablierten und zuverlässigen Prozessen aus der Mikroelektronik, speziell der CMOS-Fertigung, zur lithographischen Strukturierung. Zudem bietet Silizium viele für die integrierte Photonik günstige physikalische Eigenschaften. Beispielsweise die Transparenz im für die Datenübertragung technisch relevanten Spektralbereiche im Nahinfraroten zwischen 1260 nm und 1625 nm und einen hohen Brechungsindexkontrast zu Siliziumdioxid. Die unter dem Begriff Siliziumphotonik zusammengefasste Technologie ist daher eine vielversprechende Plattform für integrierte photonische Schaltkreise. Eines der wichtigsten Bauteile in der optischen Nachrichtentechnik ist der elektro-optische (EO) Modulator. An der Schnittstelle zwischen Elektronik und Optik ist er das zentrale Element in optischen Sendern. Neben geringen Herstellungskosten, geringem Platzbedarf und guter Energieeffizienz ist eine hohe Modulationsgeschwindigkeit eine essentielle Fähigkeit des Modulators, da diese hohe Bandbreiten in der Datenübertragung ermöglicht. Da Silizium aufgrund der punktsymmetrischen Kristallstruktur keine optische Nichtlinearität zweiter Ordnung aufweist, ist in reinem Silizium kein linearer EO Effekt (Pockels-Effekt) verfügbar. Elektro-optische Modulatoren aus Silizium basieren daher darauf, dass die Konzentration freier Ladungsträger in einem Siliziumwellenleiter moduliert wird, was beispielsweise durch Anlegen einer Spannung an einen pn-Übergang realisiert werden kann. Die Änderung der Konzentration freier Ladungsträger führt dabei zu einer Variation des optischen Brechungsindex (Plasmadispersions-Effekt). Dieser Effekt ist jedoch nicht effizient,wodurch die Energieeffizienz reiner Siliziummodulatoren insgesamt limitiert ist. Durch die heterogene Integration von Silizium mit weiteren Materialien lässt sich die Siliziumphotonik-Plattform erweitern. Organische EO Materialien lassen sich durch molekulares Design gezielt auf einen starken linearen EO Effekt hin optimieren. Durch die Kombination von Silizium-Nanowellenleitern und organischen EO Materialien lassen sich Hybridbauteile realisieren, welche wesentlich energieeffizienter als reine Siliziummodulatoren sind. In der englischsprachigen Fachliteratur werden diese Bauteile auch als silicon-organic hybrid (SOH) bezeichnet. Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit SOH-Modulatoren und deren praktischer Anwendung in der optischen Hochgeschwindigkeitskommunikation. In vorausgehenden Arbeiten wurden die fundamentalen Prinzipien von SOHModulatoren untersucht und deren grundlegende Einsetzbarkeit für die optische Datenübertragung gezeigt. Die vorliegende Arbeit baut darauf auf und adressiert gezielt Aspekte, die für einen praktischen Einsatz von SOH Bauteilen in optischen Kommunikationssystemen von großer Bedeutung sind: Um ein zielgerichtetes Design der Bauteile zu ermöglichen und grundlegende Zielkonflikte im Design zu erkennen, wird ein Modell für das dynamische EO Verhalten der Modulatoren entwickelt und experimentell verifiziert. Für die breitbandige Aufbau- und Verbindungstechnik werden Konzepte zur elektrischen Anbindung schneller SOH-Modulatoren entwickelt und demonstriert. Verschiedene Modulationsformate werden bei Bruttodatenraten von bis zu 160 Gbit/s erfolgreich getestet und demonstrieren die Eignung von SOHModulatoren für praktische Anwendungsszenarien. Kapitel 1 gibt eine kurze Einführung in das Gebiet der Siliziumphotonik und deren Bedeutung für die optische Datenübertragung. Kapitel 2 beschreibt die theoretischen und technologischen Grundlagen elektrooptischer Bauteile auf Basis der Siliziumphotonik. Dies umfasst einen Überblick über den zugehörigen Stand der Wissenschaft und Technik sowie die für die nachfolgenden Kapitel relevanten Konzepte aus der Hochfrequenz- und der Nachrichtentechnik. Kapitel 3 führt ein quantitatives Modell zur Beschreibung der dynamischen elektrischen und EO Eigenschaften von SOH-Modulatoren ein. Das Modell wird experimentell verifiziert und dient als Grundlage für verbesserte Bauteildesigns zukünftiger SOH-Modulatoren, mit denen sich Bandbreiten von mehr als 100 GHz und $\pi$-Spannungen von unter 1 V erreichen lassen. Kapitel 4 demonstriert die Eignung von SOH-Modulatoren für technisch relevante Intensitätsmodulation/Direktempfang-Verfahren (engl. intensity modulation/direct detection, IM/DD), die insbesondere für hochgradig skalierbare Übertragungssysteme mit kleinen und mittleren Reichweiten (board-to-board, rack-to-rack) interessant sind. In diesem Zusammenhang werden verschiedene IM/DD-Modulationsformate experimentell getestet und dabei Bruttodatenraten von bis zu 120 Gbit/s demonstriert. Kapitel 5 befasst sich mit der elektrischen Aufbau- und Verbindungstechnik für SOH-Modulatoren. Dies erfordert Platinen mit guten Hochfrequenzeigenschaften und kleinen Strukturgrößen, um eine hohe Integrationsdichte zu erreichen. Ein Verfahren zur Herstellung von hochfrequenztechnisch breitbandigen Keramikplatinen mit hoher räumlicher Auflösung wird vorgestellt. Mit Hilfe dieser Keramikplatinen wird ein mit Bonddrähten elektrisch angebundener SOH-Modulator vorgestellt und damit eine Bruttodatenrate von 160 Gbit/s demonstriert. Kapitel 6 fasst die vorliegende Arbeit zusammen und gibt einen Ausblick auf zukünftig notwendige Schritte, um die Anwendungsreife von SOH-Modulatoren zu erreichen. Zudem werden potentielle weitere Anwendungsfelder für SOH-Modulatoren diskutiert

Novel linear and nonlinear optical signal processing for ultra-high bandwidth communications

The thesis is articulated around the theme of ultra-wide bandwidth single channel signals. It focuses on the two main topics of transmission and processing of information by techniques compatible with high baudrates. The processing schemes introduced combine new linear and nonlinear optical platforms such as Fourier-domain programmable optical processors and chalcogenide chip waveguides, as well as the concept of neural network. Transmission of data is considered in the context of medium distance links of Optical Time Division Multiplexed (OTDM) data subject to environmental fluctuations. We experimentally demonstrate simultaneous compensation of differential group delay and multiple orders of dispersion at symbol rates of 640 Gbaud and 1.28 Tbaud. Signal processing at high bandwidth is envisaged both in the case of elementary post-transmission analog error mitigation and in the broader field of optical computing for high level operations (“optical processor”). A key innovation is the introduction of a novel four-wave mixing scheme implementing a dot-product operation between wavelength multiplexed channels. In particular, it is demonstrated for low-latency hash-key based all-optical error detection in links encoded with advanced modulation formats. Finally, the work presents groundbreaking concepts for compact implementation of an optical neural network as a programmable multi-purpose processor. The experimental architecture can implement neural networks with several nodes on a single optical nonlinear transfer function implementing functions such as analog-to-digital conversion. The particularity of the thesis is the new approaches to optical signal processing that potentially enable high level operations using simple optical hardware and limited cascading of components

High-speed low-power modulator driver arrays for medium-reach optical networks

The internet is becoming the ubiquitous tool that is changing the lives of so many citizens across the world. Commerce, government, industry, healthcare and social interactions are all increasingly using internet applications to improve and facilitate communications. This is especially true for videoenabled applications, which currently demand much higher data rates and quality from data networks. High definition TV streaming services are emerging and these again will significantly push the demand for widely deployed, high-bandwidth services. The current access passive optical networks (PONs) use a single wavelength for downstream transmission and a separate one for upstream transmission. Incorporating wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) in a PON allows for much higher bandwidths in both directions. While WDM technologies have been successfully deployed for many years in metro and core networks, in access networks they are not commonly used yet. This is mainly due to the high costs associated with deploying entire WDM access networks. However, the present optical networks cannot be simply and cost-effectively scaled to provide the capacity for tomorrow’s users. As an effect there is a strong need for new WDM access components which are compact, cost-competitive and mass-manufacturable. Increasing the number of wavelengths for WDM-PON automatically leads to an increase in the number of single pluggable transceivers, which brings substantial design challenges and additional costs. The multitude of TXs and RXs for different wavelength channels increases the total footprint considerably. Photonic integration of transceivers into arrays will significantly reduce the footprint and cost. However, the total power consumption of an array device is an issue. To avoid the use of a thermoelectric cooler, the integration density of components is severely limited by the heat dissipating capabilities offered by their package. As a result the WDM-PON philosophy necessitates the reduction of the transceiver’s power dissipation. From this plea it is apparent that the main technology challenges for realizing future-proof optical (access) networks are reducing active component power consumption, shrinking form factors and lowering assembly costs. In this perspective an over 100 Gb/s throughput component, composed of 10 channels at 11.3 Gb/s per wavelength channel would be a great contribution to the expansion of customer bandwidth. It can provide increased line rates to the end users at speeds of 10 Gb/s per wavelength. As RXs typically consume much less power than externally modulated TXs, they can relatively easily be integrated into an array. Mainly high speed optical transmitters have significant power consumptions and the heat generation caused by power dissipation forms a critical obstacle in the development of a 10-channel transmitter, which again underlines the importance of power reduction. Alongside the introduction of WDM in access networks, also inter-office point-to-point connections in data center environments could benefit from the WDM philosophy. As data center operators often suffer from fiber scarcity or do not own their fiber infrastructure, WDM technologies are essential to deliver reach and capacity extension for these scenarios. Interdata center communication also benefits from cost-, footprint- and energyefficient components operating at high speed to maximize the throughput. As an effect integrated over 100 Gb/s transceivers, such as 4 channels at 28 Gb/s, are highly desirable. The research described in this dissertation was partly funded by the European FP7 ICT project C3PO (Colourless and Coolerless Components for low Power Optical Networks) and the UGent special research fund. The C3PO project aimed to develop a new generation of green Si-photonic compatible components with record low power consumption, that can enable bandwidth growth and constrain the total cost. C3PO envisioned building high-capacity access networks employing reflective photonic components. To achieve this, cost-competitive reflective transmitters based on electroabsorption modulators (EAM) needed to be closely integrated into arrays. A multi-wavelength optical source provides the required wavelength channels for both downstream and upstream signals in the WDM-PON. Chapter 1 gives a short overview of a PON and describes the main implementations of a WDM-PON access network. It introduces integrated low power transmitter arrays for a cost-effective architecture of WDM-PONs and inter-data center communication. Chapter 2 compares different optical transmitters and gives a short overview of their most important characteristics. External modulation through both Mach-Zehnder modulators (MZMs) and EAMs is described. It shows that EAMs are the best choice for low power transmitter array integration, thanks to their lower drive voltage and smaller form factor, compared to MZMs. To achieve a reduced consumption, the electronic modulator driver topology is studied in chapter 3. The challenge in designing modulator drivers is the need to deliver very large currents in combination with high voltage swings. Four distinct output configurations are compared and techniques to reduce the power consumption of the drivers are described. Chapter 5 presents duobinary (DB), a modulation scheme that is gaining interest in today’s optical transmission. As the required bandwidth is about half that of NRZ, it softens the constraints on the transmitter bandwidth. Thanks to its narrow optical spectrum, it has an improved tolerance to dispersion in long haul single mode links and it can improve the spectral efficiency in WDM architectures. For optical DB a precoder is necessary to assure the received signal is equal to the original binary signal. The conducted research that resulted in this dissertation produced 2 low power EAM driver arrays: A 10-channel 113 Gb/s modulator driver array with state-of-the art ultra-low power consumption. A 2-channel 56 Gb/s duobinary driver array with a differential output with low power consumption. Both designs are elaborately analyzed in chapter 4 and 6 respectively. To the best of our knowledge the 10-channel EAM driver array is the first in its kind, while achieving the lowest power consumption for an EAM driver so far reported, 50% below the state of the art in power consumption. The 2-channel EAM driver array is the fastest modulator driver including on-chip duobinary encoding and precoding reported so far. The final chapter provides an overview of the foremost conclusions from the presented research. It is concluded with suggestions for further research

Analog radio over fiber solutions for multi-band 5g systems

This study presents radio over fiber (RoF) solutions for the fifth-generation (5G) of wireless networks. After the state of the art and a technical background review, four main contributions are reported. The first one is proposing and investigating a RoF technique based on a dual-drive Mach-Zehnder modulator (DD-MZM) for multi-band mobile fronthauls, in which two radiofrequency (RF) signals in the predicted 5G bands individually feed an arm of the optical modulator. Experimental results demonstrate the approach enhances the RF interference mitigation and can prevail over traditional methods. The second contribution comprises the integration of a 5G transceiver, previously developed by our group, in a passive optical network (PON) using RoF technology and wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) overlay. The proposed architecture innovates by employing DD-MZM and enables to simultaneously transport baseband and 5G candidate RF signals in the same PON infrastructure. The proof-of-concept includes the transmission of a generalized frequency division multiplexing (GFDM) signal generated by the 5G transceiver in the 700 MHz band, a 26 GHz digitally modulated signal as a millimeter-waves 5G band, and a baseband signal from an gigabit PON (GPON). Experimental results demonstrate the 5G transceiver digital performance when using RoF technology for distributing the GFDM signal, as well as Gbit/s throughput at 26 GHz. The third contribution is the implementation of a flexible-waveform and multi-application fiber-wireless (FiWi) system toward 5G. Such system includes the FiWi transmission of the GFDM and filtered orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (F-OFDM) signals at 788 MHz, toward long-range cells for remote or rural mobile access, as well as the recently launched 5G NR standard in microwave and mm-waves, aiming enhanced mobile broadband indoor and outdoor applications. Digital signal processing (DSP) is used for selecting the waveform and linearizing the RoF link. Experimental results demonstrate the suitability of the proposed solution to address 5G scenarios and requirements, besides the applicability of using existent fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) networks from Internet service providers for implementing 5G systems. Finally, the fourth contribution is the implementation of a multi-band 5G NR system with photonic-assisted RF amplification (PAA). The approach takes advantage of a novel PAA technique, based on RoF technology and four-wave mixing effect, that allows straightforward integration to the transport networks. Experimental results demonstrate iv uniform and stable 15 dB wideband gain for Long Term Evolution (LTE) and three 5G signals, distributed in the frequency range from 780 MHz to 26 GHz and coexisting in the mobile fronthaul. The obtained digital performance has efficiently met the Third-Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) requirements, demonstrating the applicability of the proposed approach for using fiber-optic links to distribute and jointly amplify LTE and 5G signals in the optical domain.Agência 1Este trabalho apresenta soluções de rádio sobre fibra (RoF) para aplicações em redes sem fio de quinta geração (5G), e inclui quatro contribuições principais. A primeira delas refere-se à proposta e investigação de uma técnica de RoF baseada no modulador eletroóptico de braço duplo, dual-drive Mach-Zehnder (DD-MZM), para a transmissão simultânea de sinais de radiofrequência (RF) em bandas previstas para redes 5G. Resultados experimentais demonstram que o uso do DD-MZM favorece a ausência de interferência entre os sinais de RF transmitidos. A segunda contribuição trata da integração de um transceptor de RF, desenvolvido para aplicações 5G e apto a prover a forma de onda conhecida como generalized frequency division multiplexing (GFDM), em uma rede óptica passiva (PON) ao utilizar RoF e multiplexação por divisão de comprimento de onda (WDM). A arquitetura proposta permite transportar, na mesma infraestrutura de rede, sinais em banda base e de radiofrequência nas faixas do espectro candidatas para 5G. A prova de conceito inclui a distribuição conjunta de três tipos de sinais: um sinal GFDM na banda de 700 MHz, proveniente do transceptor desenvolvido; um sinal digital na frequência de 26 GHz, assumindo a faixa de ondas milimétricas; sinais em banda base provenientes de uma PON dedicada ao serviço de Internet. Resultados experimentais demonstram o desempenho do transceptor de RF ao utilizar a referida arquitetura para distribuir sinais GFDM, além de taxas de transmissão de dados da ordem de Gbit/s na faixa de 26 GHz. A terceira contribuição corresponde à implementação de um sistema fibra/rádio potencial para redes 5G, operando inclusive com o padrão ―5G New Radio (5G NR)‖ nas faixas de micro-ondas e ondas milimétricas. Tal sistema é capaz de prover macro células na banda de 700 MHz para aplicações de longo alcance e/ou rurais, utilizando sinais GFDM ou filtered orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (F-OFDM), assim como femto células na banda de 26 GHz, destinada a altas taxas de transmissão de dados para comunicações de curto alcance. Resultados experimentais demonstram a aplicabilidade da solução proposta para redes 5G, além da viabilidade de utilizar redes ópticas pertencentes a provedores de Internet para favorecer sistemas de nova geração. Por fim, a quarta contribuição trata da implementação de um sistema 5G NR multibanda, assistido por amplificação de RF no domínio óptico. Esse sistema faz uso de um novo método de amplificação, baseado no efeito não linear da mistura de quatro ondas, que vi permite integração direta em redes de transporte envolvendo rádio sobre fibra. Resultados experimentais demonstram ganho de RF igual a 15 dB em uma ampla faixa de frequências (700 MHz até 26 GHz), atendendo simultaneamente tecnologias de quarta e quinta geração. O desempenho digital obtido atendeu aos requisitos estabelecidos pela 3GPP (Third-Generation Partnership Project), indicando a aplicabilidade da solução em questão para distribuir e conjuntamente amplificar sinais de RF em enlaces de fibra óptica

Data transport over optical fibre for ska using advanced modulation flexible spectrum technology

Flexible Spectrum Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexed (DWDM) optical fibre networks are next-generation technology for handling extremely high data rates of the kind produced by MeerKAT and SKA.We optimise the flexible spectrum for real-time dynamic channel wavelength assignment, to ensure optimum network performance. We needed to identify and develop novel hardware and dynamic algorithms for these networks to function optimally to perform critical tasks. Such tasks include wavelength assignment, signal routing, network restoration and network protection. The antennas of the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) network connect to the correlator and data processor in a simple point-to-point fixed configuration. The connection of the astronomer users to the data processor, however, requires a more complex network architecture. This is because the network has users scattered around South Africa, Africa and the whole world. This calls for upgrade of the classical fixed wavelength spectrum grids, to flexible spectrum grid that has improved capacity, reliable, simple and cost-effectiveness through sharing of network infrastructure. The exponential growth of data traffic in current optical communication networks requires higher capacity for the bandwidth demands at a reduced cost per bit. All-optical signal processing is a promising technique to improve network resource utilisation and resolve wavelength contention associated with the flexible spectrum. Flexible Spectrum Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexed (DWDM) optical fibre networks are next-generation technology for handling extremely high data rates of the kind produced by MeerKAT and SKA. Each DWDM channel is capable of 10 Gbps transmission rate, which is sliceable into finer flexible grid 12.5 GHz granularity to offer the network elastic spectrum and channel spacing capable of signal routing and wavelength switching for the scalability of aggregate bandwidth. The variable-sized portions of the flexible spectrum assignment to end users at different speeds depend on bandwidth demand, allowing efficient utilisation of the spectrum resources. The entire bandwidth of dynamic optical connections must be contiguously allocated. However, there is an introduction of spectrum fragmentation due to spectrum contiguity related to the optical channels having different width. Thus large traffic demands are likely to experience blocking regardless of available bandwidth. To minimise the congestion and cost-effectively obtain high performance, the optical network must be reconfigurable, achievable by adding wavelength as an extra degree of freedom for effectiveness. This can introduce colourless, directionless and contentionless reconfigurability to route individual wavelengths from fibre to fibre across multiple nodes to avoid wavelength blocking/collisions, increasing the flexibility and capacity of a network. For these networks to function optimally, novel hardware and dynamic algorithms identification and development is a critical task. Such tasks include wavelength assignment, signal routing, network restoration and network protection. In this work, we for the first time to our knowledge proposed a spectrum defragmentation technique through reallocation of the central frequency of the optical transmitter, to increase the probability of finding a sufficient continuous spectrum. This is to improve network resource utilisation, capacity and resolve wavelength contention associated with a flexible spectrum in optical communication networks. The following chapter provides details on a flexible spectrum in optical fibre networks utilising DWDM, optimising transmitter-receivers, advanced modulation formats, coherent detection, reconfigurable optical add and drop multiplexer (ROADM) technology to implement hardware and middleware platforms which address growing bandwidth demands for scalability, flexibility and cost-efficiency. A major attribute is tunable lasers, an essential component for future flexible spectrum with application to wavelength switching, routing, wavelength conversion and ROADM for the multi-node optical network through spectrum flexibility and cost-effective sharing of fibre links, transmitters and receivers. Spectrum slicing into fine granular sub-carriers and assigning several frequency slots to accommodate diverse traffic demands is a viable approach. This work experimentally presents a spectral efficient technique for bandwidth variability, wavelength allocation, routing, defragmentation and wavelength selective switches in the nodes of a network, capable of removing the fixed grid spacing using low cost, high bandwidth, power-efficient and wavelength-tunable vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) transmitter directly modulated with 10 Gbps data. This to ensure that majority of the spectrum utilisation at finer channel spacing, wastage of the spectrum resource as caused by the wavelength continuity constraint reduction and it improves bandwidth utilisation. The technique is flexible in terms of modulation formats and accommodates various formats with spectrally continuous channels, fulfilling the future bandwidth demands with transmissions beyond 100 Gbps per channel while maintaining spectral efficiency

Data transport over optical fibre for ska using advanced modulation flexible spectrum technology

Flexible Spectrum Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexed (DWDM) optical fibre networks are next-generation technology for handling extremely high data rates of the kind produced by MeerKAT and SKA.We optimise the flexible spectrum for real-time dynamic channel wavelength assignment, to ensure optimum network performance. We needed to identify and develop novel hardware and dynamic algorithms for these networks to function optimally to perform critical tasks. Such tasks include wavelength assignment, signal routing, network restoration and network protection. The antennas of the Square Kilometre Array (SKA) network connect to the correlator and data processor in a simple point-to-point fixed configuration. The connection of the astronomer users to the data processor, however, requires a more complex network architecture. This is because the network has users scattered around South Africa, Africa and the whole world. This calls for upgrade of the classical fixed wavelength spectrum grids, to flexible spectrum grid that has improved capacity, reliable, simple and cost-effectiveness through sharing of network infrastructure. The exponential growth of data traffic in current optical communication networks requires higher capacity for the bandwidth demands at a reduced cost per bit. All-optical signal processing is a promising technique to improve network resource utilisation and resolve wavelength contention associated with the flexible spectrum. Flexible Spectrum Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexed (DWDM) optical fibre networks are next-generation technology for handling extremely high data rates of the kind produced by MeerKAT and SKA. Each DWDM channel is capable of 10 Gbps transmission rate, which is sliceable into finer flexible grid 12.5 GHz granularity to offer the network elastic spectrum and channel spacing capable of signal routing and wavelength switching for the scalability of aggregate bandwidth. The variable-sized portions of the flexible spectrum assignment to end users at different speeds depend on bandwidth demand, allowing efficient utilisation of the spectrum resources. The entire bandwidth of dynamic optical connections must be contiguously allocated. However, there is an introduction of spectrum fragmentation due to spectrum contiguity related to the optical channels having different width. Thus large traffic demands are likely to experience blocking regardless of available bandwidth. To minimise the congestion and cost-effectively obtain high performance, the optical network must be reconfigurable, achievable by adding wavelength as an extra degree of freedom for effectiveness. This can introduce colourless, directionless and contentionless reconfigurability to route individual wavelengths from fibre to fibre across multiple nodes to avoid wavelength blocking/collisions, increasing the flexibility and capacity of a network. For these networks to function optimally, novel hardware and dynamic algorithms identification and development is a critical task. Such tasks include wavelength assignment, signal routing, network restoration and network protection. In this work, we for the first time to our knowledge proposed a spectrum defragmentation technique through reallocation of the central frequency of the optical transmitter, to increase the probability of finding a sufficient continuous spectrum. This is to improve network resource utilisation, capacity and resolve wavelength contention associated with a flexible spectrum in optical communication networks. The following chapter provides details on a flexible spectrum in optical fibre networks utilising DWDM, optimising transmitter-receivers, advanced modulation formats, coherent detection, reconfigurable optical add and drop multiplexer (ROADM) technology to implement hardware and middleware platforms which address growing bandwidth demands for scalability, flexibility and cost-efficiency. A major attribute is tunable lasers, an essential component for future flexible spectrum with application to wavelength switching, routing, wavelength conversion and ROADM for the multi-node optical network through spectrum flexibility and cost-effective sharing of fibre links, transmitters and receivers. Spectrum slicing into fine granular sub-carriers and assigning several frequency slots to accommodate diverse traffic demands is a viable approach. This work experimentally presents a spectral efficient technique for bandwidth variability, wavelength allocation, routing, defragmentation and wavelength selective switches in the nodes of a network, capable of removing the fixed grid spacing using low cost, high bandwidth, power-efficient and wavelength-tunable vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) transmitter directly modulated with 10 Gbps data. This to ensure that majority of the spectrum utilisation at finer channel spacing, wastage of the spectrum resource as caused by the wavelength continuity constraint reduction and it improves bandwidth utilisation. The technique is flexible in terms of modulation formats and accommodates various formats with spectrally continuous channels, fulfilling the future bandwidth demands with transmissions beyond 100 Gbps per channel while maintaining spectral efficiency