Discriminant analysis of the specialty of elite cyclist

The different demands of competition coupled with the morphological and physiological characteristics of cyclists have led to the appearance of cycling specialities. The aims of this study were to determine the differences in the anthropometric and physiological features in road cyclists with different specialities, and to develop a multivariate model to classify these specialities and predict which speciality may be appropriate to a given cyclist. Twenty male, elite amateur cyclists were classified by their trainers as either flat terrain riders, hill climbers, or all-terrain riders. Anthropometric and cardiorespiratory studies were then undertaken. The results were analysed by MANOVA and two discriminant tests. Most differences between the speciality groups were of an anthropometric nature. The only cardiorespiratory variable that differed significantly (p < 0.05) was maximum oxygen consumption with respect to body weight (VO2max/kg). The first discriminant test classified 100% of the cyclists within their true speciality; the second, which took into account only anthropometric variables, correctly classified 75%. The first discriminant model allows the likely speciality of still non-elite cyclists to be predicted from a small number of variables, and may therefore help in their specific training

Age-related differences in adaptation during childhood: The influences of muscular power production and segmental energy flow caused by muscles

Acquisition of skillfulness is not only characterized by a task-appropriate application of muscular forces but also by the ability to adapt performance to changing task demands. Previous research suggests that there is a different developmental schedule for adaptation at the kinematic compared to the neuro-muscular level. The purpose of this study was to determine how age-related differences in neuro-muscular organization affect the mechanical construction of pedaling at different levels of the task. By quantifying the flow of segmental energy caused by muscles, we determined the muscular synergies that construct the movement outcome across movement speeds. Younger children (5-7 years; n = 11), older children (8-10 years; n = 8), and adults (22-31 years; n = 8) rode a stationary ergometer at five discrete cadences (60, 75, 90, 105, and 120 rpm) at 10% of their individually predicted peak power output. Using a forward dynamics simulation, we determined the muscular contributions to crank power, as well as muscular power delivered to the crank directly and indirectly (through energy absorption and transfer) during the downstroke and the upstroke of the crank cycle. We found significant age × cadence interactions for (1) peak muscular power at the hip joint [Wilks' Lambda = 0.441, F(8,42) = 2.65, p = 0.019] indicating that at high movement speeds children produced less peak power at the hip than adults, (2) muscular power delivered to the crank during the downstroke and the upstroke of the crank cycle [Wilks' Lambda = 0.399, F(8,42) = 3.07, p = 0.009] indicating that children delivered a greater proportion of the power to the crank during the upstroke when compared to adults, (3) hip power contribution to limb power [Wilks' Lambda = 0.454, F(8,42) = 2.54, p = 0.023] indicating a cadence-dependence of age-related differences in the muscular synergy between hip extensors and plantarflexors. The results demonstrate that in spite of a successful performance, children construct the task of pedaling differently when compared to adults, especially when they are pushed to their performance limits. The weaker synergy between hip extensors and plantarflexors suggests that a lack of inter-muscular coordination, rather than muscular power production per se, is a factor that limits children's performance ranges

Evolving Pacing Strategies for Team Pursuit Track Cycling

Team pursuit track cycling is a bicycle racing sport held on velodromes and is part of the Summer Olympics. It involves the use of strategies to minimize the overall time that a team of cyclists needs to complete a race. We present an optimisation framework for team pursuit track cycling and show how to evolve strategies using metaheuristics for this interesting real-world problem. Our experimental results show that these heuristics lead to significantly better strategies than state-of-art strategies that are currently used by teams of cyclists

Psychophysiological effects of synchronous versus asynchronous music during cycling

"This is a non-final version of an article published in final form in (https://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/pages/articleviewer.aspx?year=2014&issue=02000&article=00024&type=abstract )"Purpose: Synchronizing movement to a musical beat may reduce the metabolic cost of exercise, but findings to date have been equivocal. Our aim was to examine the degree to which the synchronous application of music moderates the metabolic demands of a cycle ergometer task. Methods: Twenty-three recreationally active men made two laboratory visits. During the first visit, participants completed a maximal incremental ramp test on a cycle ergometer. At the second visit, they completed four randomized 6-min cycling bouts at 90% of ventilatory threshold (control, metronome, synchronous music, and asynchronous music). Main outcome variables were oxygen uptake, HR, ratings of dyspnea and limb discomfort, affective valence, and arousal. Results: No significant differences were evident for oxygen uptake. HR was lower under the metronome condition (122 T 15 bpm) compared to asynchronous music (124 T 17 bpm) and control (125 T 16 bpm). Limb discomfort was lower while listening to the metronome (2.5 T 1.2) and synchronous music (2.3 T 1.1) compared to control (3.0 T 1.5). Both music conditions, synchronous (1.9 T 1.2) and asynchronous (2.1 T 1.3), elicited more positive affective valence compared to metronome (1.2 T 1.4) and control (1.2 T 1.2), while arousal was higher with synchronous music (3.4 T 0.9) compared to metronome (2.8 T 1.0) and control (2.8 T 0.9). Conclusions: Synchronizing movement to a rhythmic stimulus does not reduce metabolic cost but may lower limb discomfort. Moreover, synchronous music has a stronger effect on limb discomfort and arousal when compared to asynchronous music

Management of the technical training process of athletes in cycling sports

In cyclic sports, the main indicator that characterizes adversarial activity is the average speed of passing distances. The presence of functional dependencies of speed factors on various indicators of sports activity can determine its dynamics. It allows to simulate the process of competitive activity, and according to the dynamics of speed, to determine the nature of a particular indicator. Cyclists and swimmers defined law of motion, the dependence of the athlete's instantaneous speed and its acceleration ontime, applied forces, resistance forces and forces of inertia, as well as on specific physical and morphological data. The presence of a mathematical model allows us to create an adaptive system for controlling the technical preparedness of athletes in cyclic sports

Modeling Optimal Cadence as a Function of Time during Maximal Sprint Exercises Can Improve Performance by Elite Track Cyclists

In track cycling sprint events, optimal cadence PRopt is a dynamic aspect of fatigue. It is currently unclear what cadence is optimal for an athlete’s performance in sprint races and how it can be calculated. We examined fatigue-induced changes in optimal cadence during a maximal sprint using a mathematical approach. Nine elite track cyclists completed a 6-s high-frequency pedaling test and a 60-s isokinetic all-out sprint on a bicycle ergometer with continuous monitoring of crank force and cadence. Fatigue-free force-velocity (F/v) and power-velocity (P/v) profiles were derived from both tests. The development of fatigue during the 60-s sprint was assessed by fixing the slope of the fatigue-free F/v profile. Fatigue-induced alterations in PRopt were determined by non-linear regression analysis using a mono-exponential equation at constant slope. The study revealed that PRopt at any instant during a 60-s maximal sprint can be estimated accurately using a mono-exponential equation. In an isokinetic mode, a mean PRopt can be identified that enables the athlete to generate the highest mean power output over the course of the effort. Adding the time domain to the fatigue-free F/v and P/v profiles allows time-dependent cycling power to be modelled independent of cadence

Biomehanika i energetika vožnje bicikla uzbrdo: pregled istraživanja

The winners of the major cycling 3-week stage races (i.e. Giro d’Italia, Tour de France, Vuelta a Espana) are usually riders who dominate in the uphill sections of the race. Amateur cyclists, however, will often avoid uphill terrain because of the discomfort involved. Therefore, understanding movement behavior during uphill cycling is needed in order to find an optimum solution that can be applied in practice. The aim of this review is to assess the quality of research performed on biomechanics and the energetics of uphill cycling. Altogether we have analyzed over 40 articles from scientific and expert periodicals that provided results on energetics, pedal and joint forces, economy and efficiency, muscular activity, as well as performance and comfort optimization during uphill cycling. During uphill cycling, cyclists need to overcome gravity and in order to achieve this, some changes in posture are necessary. The main results from this review are that changes in muscular activity are present, while on the other hand pedal forces, joint dynamics, and cycling efficiency are not substantially altered during seated uphill cycling compared to cycling on level terrain. In contrast, during standing uphill cycling, all of the previously mentioned measures are different when comparing either seated uphill cycling or level terrain cycling. Further research should focus on outdoor studies and steeper slopes.Pobjednici najvećih biciklističkih 3-tjednih etapnih utrka (npr. Giro d’Italia, Tour de France, Vuelta a Espana) su najčešće biciklisti koji dominiraju u segmentima utrke s usponima. Amaterski biciklisti, pak, često izbjegavaju uzbrdice zbog neugodnosti koju vožnja uzbrdo izaziva. Zbog toga je nužno poznavati i razumjeti kretanje tijekom vožnje bicikla uzbrdo da bi se izabralo optimalno motoričko ponašanje koje se može primijeniti u praksi. Cilj je ovoga rada ocijeniti kvalitetu istraživanja o biomehanici i energetskim zahtjevima bicikliranja uzbrdo. Ukupno smo analizirali 40 članaka iz znanstvenih i stručnih časopisa koji su istražili energetiku, sile pedaliranja i sile u zglobovima, ekonomičnost i učinkovitost mišićne aktivnosti te optimizaciju izvedbe i udobnosti tijekom vožnje bicikla uzbrdo. Za vožnje po uzbrdici biciklisti moraju svladati gravitaciju, a da bi u tome uspjeli, potrebne su određene promjene u položaju tijela. Glavni rezultat ovog preglednog rada jest zaključak da se mišićna aktivnost mijenja tijekom vožnje bicikla uzbrdo u sjedu usporedbi s vožnjom po ravnom terenu, dok se s druge strane, sile na pedalama, dinamika zglobova i učinkovitost vožnje ne mijenjaju značajno. Suprotno tome, tijekom vožnje bicikla uzbrdo u stojećem položaju sve ranije spomenute mjere su različite od onih zabilježenih u vožnji bicikla uzbrdo u sjedu ili u vožnji po ravnom terenu. Daljnja istraživanja trebala bi se usmjeriti na istraživanja provedena u vanjskim uvjetima i na strmijim usponima