The role of risk aversion in non-conscious decision making

To what extent can people choose advantageously without knowing why they are making those choices? This hotly debated question has capitalized on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), in which people often learn to choose advantageously without appearing to know why. However, because the IGT is unconstrained in many respects, this finding remains debated and other interpretations are possible (e.g., risk aversion, ambiguity aversion, limits of working memory, or insensitivity to reward/punishment can explain the finding of the IGT). Here we devised an improved variant of the IGT in which the deck-payoff contingency switches after subjects repeatedly choose from a good deck, offering the statistical power of repeated within-subject measures based on learning the reward contingencies associated with each deck. We found that participants exhibited low confidence in their choices, as probed with post-decision wagering, despite high accuracy in selecting advantageous decks in the task, which is putative evidence for non-conscious decision making. However, such a behavioral dissociation could also be explained by risk aversion, a tendency to avoid risky decisions under uncertainty. By explicitly measuring risk aversion for each individual, we predicted subjects’ post-decision wagering using Bayesian modeling. We found that risk aversion indeed does play a role, but that it did not explain the entire effect. Moreover, independently measured risk aversion was uncorrelated with risk aversion exhibited during our version of the IGT, raising the possibility that the latter risk aversion may be non-conscious. Our findings support the idea that people can make optimal choices without being fully aware of the basis of their decision. We suggest that non-conscious decision making may be mediated by emotional feelings of risk that are based on mechanisms distinct from those that support cognitive assessment of risk

Comparing AI Archetypes and Hybrids Using Blackjack

The discipline of artificial intelligence (AI) is a diverse field, with a vast variety of philosophies and implementations to consider. This work attempts to compare several of these paradigms as well as their variations and hybrids, using the card game of blackjack as the field of competition. This is done with an automated blackjack emulator, written in Java, which accepts computer-controlled players of various AI philosophies and their variants, training them and finally pitting them against each other in a series of tournaments with customizable rule sets. In order to avoid bias towards any particular implementation, the system treats each group as a team, allowing each team to run optimally and handle their own evolution. The primary AI paradigms examined in this work are rule-based AI and genetic learning, drawing from the philosophies of fuzzy logic and intelligent agents. The rule-based AI teams apply various commonly used algorithms for real-world blackjack, ranging from the basic rules of a dealer to the situational rule of thumb formula suggested to amateurs. The blackjack options of hit, stand, surrender, and double down are supported, but advanced options such as hand splitting and card counting are not examined. Various tests exploring possible configurations of genetic learning systems were devised, implemented, and analyzed. Future work would expand the variety and complexity of the teams, as well as implementing advanced game features

The effects of a 12-Month weight loss intervention on cognitive outcomes in adults with overweight and obesity

Obesity is associated with poorer executive functioning and reward sensitivity. Yet, we know very little about whether weight loss through diet and/or increased exercise engagement improves cognitive function. This study evaluated whether weight loss following a dietary and exercise intervention was associated with improved cognitive performance. We enrolled 125 middle-aged adults with overweight and obesity (98 female) into a 12-month behavioral weight loss intervention. Participants were assigned to one of three groups: energy-restricted diet alone, an energy-restricted diet plus 150 min of moderate intensity exercise per week or an energy restricted diet plus 250 min of exercise per week. All participants completed tests measuring executive functioning and/or reward sensitivity, including the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). Following the intervention, weight significantly decreased in all groups. A MANCOVA controlling for age, sex and race revealed a significant multivariate effect of group on cognitive changes. Post-hoc ANCOVAs revealed a Group x Time interaction only on IGT reward sensitivity, such that the high exercise group improved their performance relative to the other two intervention groups. Post-hoc ANCOVAs also revealed a main effect of Time, independent of intervention group, on IGT net payoff score. Changes in weight were not associated with other changes in cognitive performance. Engaging in a high amount of exercise improved reward sensitivity above and beyond weight loss alone. This suggests that there is additional benefit to adding exercise into behavioral weight loss regimens on executive functioning, even without additional benefit to weight loss

Implementation Support Improves Outcomes of a Fluency-Based Mathematics Strategy: A Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial

The Say-All-Fast-Minute-Every-Day-Shuffled (SAFMEDS) strategy promotes fast and accurate recall. The existing literature suggests that the strategy can help learners improve academic outcomes. Through a cluster randomized controlled trial, we assessed the impact of implementation support on children’s mathematics outcomes during a teacher-led SAFMEDS intervention. Following training and prior to baseline assessments, we randomly allocated schools to receive either no (n = 31) or ongoing (n = 33) support from a researcher. Support consisted of three in-situ visits and email contact. Assessors remained blind to the condition of the schools throughout. We analyzed the outcomes of children (nSupport = 294, nNoSupport = 281) using a multi-level mixed-effects model; accounting for the children nested within schools. The results suggest that implementation support has a small effect on children’s fluency of arithmetic facts (Mathematics Fluency and Calculation Tests (MFaCTs): Grades 1–2, d = 0.23, 95% CI: 0.06–0.40; MFaCTs: Grades 3–5, d = 0.25, 95% CI: 0.08–0.42). These results are larger than the average effect sizes reported within professional development literature that apply coaching elements to mathematics programs

Endocannabinoid Involvement in Impulsivity and Decision-making

Problem gambling is a widespread phenomenon with a prevalence estimate of 2.3% globally (Williams, Volberg, & Stevens, 2012). Although little is known about the neurochemistry underlying this pathological behaviour, evidence suggests that dysregulation of the brain’s endocannabinoid (eCB) system may be implicated in impulsivity and decision-making. For example, chronic cannabis users exhibit impulsive behaviour and impaired decision-making on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). The present study sought to further examine the role of the eCB system in problem gambling-related decision-making in laboratory rats using the five-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT), and a recently-developed rodent analogue of the IGT called the rat gambling task (rGT). It was predicted that increasing neural levels of the eCB anandamide by administering the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor URB597 would increase impulsivity as found previously with psychomotor stimulants. Results revealed that URB597 (0.03-1 mg/kg, IP) had no effect on premature responding or correct choices. Cocaine (15 mg/kg, IP) increased premature responding and decreased choice accuracy in the 5-CSRTT, but these effects were not attenuated by the CB1 inverse agonist rimonabant (3 mg/kg, IP). Furthermore, neither URB597 (0.03-1 mg/kg, IP) nor the cannabinoid receptor agonist THC (1.0-1.5 mg/kg, IP) altered optimal choice preference or premature responding in the rGT. Taken together, results did not support the notion that eCBs are involved in impulsivity or decision-making. We also conclude that any involvement of the eCB system in impulsivity is likely a downstream process from dopamine release

Anticipatory stress restores decision-making deficits in heavy drinkers by increasing sensitivity to losses

Background: Substance abusers are characterized by hypersensitivity to reward. This leads to maladaptive decisions generally, as well as those on laboratory-based decision-making tasks, such as the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). Negative affect has also been shown to disrupt the decision-making of healthy individuals, particularly decisions made under uncertainty. Neuropsychological theories of learning, including the Somatic Marker Hypothesis (SMH), argue this occurs by amplifying affective responses to punishment. In substance abusers, this might serve to rebalance their sensitivity to reward with punishment, and improve decision-making

Asking sensitive questions in conservation using Randomised Response Techniques

Conservation increasingly seeks knowledge of human behaviour. However, securing reliable data can be challenging, particularly if the behaviour is illegal or otherwise sensitive. Specialised questioning methods such as Randomised Response Techniques (RRTs) are increasingly used in conservation to provide greater anonymity, increase response rates, and reduce bias. A rich RRT literature exists, but successfully navigating it can be challenging. To help conservationists access this literature, we summarise the various RRT designs available and conduct a systematic review of empirical applications of RRTs within (n = 32), and beyond conservation (n = 66). Our results show increased application of RRTs in conservation since 2000. We compare the performance of RRTs against known prevalence of the sensitive behaviour and relative to other questioning techniques to assess how successful RRTs are at reducing bias (indicated by securing higher estimates). Findings suggest that RRT applications in conservation were less likely than those in other disciplines to provide prevalence estimates equal to, or higher than those derived from direct questions. Across all disciplines, we found reports of non-compliance with RRT instructions were common, but rarely accounted for in study design or analysis. For the first time, we provide conservationists considering RRTs with evidence on what works, and provide guidance on how to develop robust designs suitable for conservation research contexts. We highlight when alternate methods should be used, how to increase design efficiency and improve compliance with RRT instructions. We conclude RRTs are a useful tool, but their performance depends on careful design and implementation

Understanding the association between negative symptoms and performance on effort-based decision-making tasks: The importance of defeatist performance beliefs

Effort-based decision-making paradigms are increasingly utilized to gain insight into the nature of motivation deficits. Research has shown associations between effort-based decision making and experiential negative symptoms; however, the associations are not consistent. The current study had two primary goals. First, we aimed to replicate previous findings of a deficit in effort-based decision making among individuals with schizophrenia on a test of cognitive effort. Second, in a large sample combined from the current and a previous study, we sought to examine the association between negative symptoms and effort by including the related construct of defeatist beliefs. The results replicated previous findings of impaired cognitive effort-based decision making in schizophrenia. Defeatist beliefs significantly moderated the association between negative symptoms and effort-based decision making such that there was a strong association between high negative symptoms and deficits in effort-based decision making, but only among participants with high levels of defeatist beliefs. Thus, our findings suggest the relationship between negative symptoms and effort performance may be understood by taking into account the role of defeatist beliefs, and finding that might explain discrepancies in previous studies

Disadvantageous decision-making as a predictor of drop-out among cocaine-dependent individuals in long-term residential treatment

Background: The treatment of cocaine-dependent individuals (CDI) is substantially challenged by high drop-out rates, raising questions regarding contributing factors. Recently, a number of studies have highlighted the potential of greater focus on the clinical significance of neurocognitive impairments in treatment-seeking cocaine users. In the present study, we hypothesized that disadvantageous decision-making would be one such factor placing CDI at greater risk for treatment drop-out. Methods: In order to explore this hypothesis, the present study contrasted baseline performance (at treatment onset) on two validated tasks of decision-making, the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) and the Cambridge GambleTask (CGT) in CDI who completed treatment in a residentialTherapeutic Community (TC) (N=66) and those who dropped out ofTC prematurely (N=84). Results: Compared to treatment completers, CDI who dropped out ofTC prematurely did not establish a consistent and advantageous response pattern as the IGT progressed and exhibited a poorer ability to choose the most likely outcome on the CGT. There were no group differences in betting behavior. Conclusion: Our findings suggest that neurocognitive rehabilitation of disadvantageous decision-making may have clinical benefits in CDI admitted to long-term residential treatment programs