OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE TEMPERATURE EFFECTS OF VIRTUAL REALITY

The purpose of this study was to examine whether we could manipulate an individual’s body temperature by immersing them in a virtual environment. Virtual reality (VR) involves digital environment immersion of individuals and their movements into a digital space designed to simulate a real environment. The goal of VR is to give the perception that people are actively interacting with the virtual environment. The present study examined the effects of VR on participants in two conditions: the experimental condition of a snowy blizzard environment and the control condition of a temperate forest environment. It was hypothesized that participants would experience an objective surface temperature decrease as well as a subjective body temperature decrease in the experimental condition. Results revealed no significant objective change in surface temperature. For the subjective measure, a main effect was observed for time, which was modified by an interaction between time and condition. Participants showed a significant perceived temperature change through the subjective measure. Overall, these results suggest VR can have an effect on peoples’ perception of temperature, indicating usefulness in clinical settings where it is desired to create a mental effect

Assessment of Psychophysiological Differences of West Point Cadets and Civilian Controls Immersed within a Virtual Environment

Abstract. An important question for ecologically valid virtual environments is whether cohort characteristics affect immersion. If a method for assessing a cer-tain neurocognitive capacity (e.g. attentional processing) is adapted to a cohort other than the one that was used for the initial normative distribution, data ob-tained in the new cohort may not be reflective of the neurocognitive capacity in question. We assessed the psychophysiological impact of different levels of immersion upon persons from two cohorts: 1) civilian university students; and 2) West Point Cadets. Cadets were found to have diminished startle eyeblink amplitude compared with civilians, which may reflect that cadets experienced less negative affect during the scenario in general. Further, heart rate data re-vealed that Cadets had significantly lower heart rates than Civilians in the “low ” but not “high ” immersion condition. This suggests that “low ” immersion conditions may not have the ecological validity necessary to evoke consistent affect across cohorts

New Trends in Episodic Memory Assessment: Immersive 360° Ecological Videos

How best to measure memory in a reliable and valid way has been intensely debated in neuropsychological literature. Specifically, classical neuropsychological tests often fail to predict real-life performance or capture the multifaceted nature of memory function. To solve these issues, there has been a growing emphasis on the use of more ecological memory assessment. In this scenario, several virtual reality based tools have been developed to evaluate memory function. The aim of the current perspective is to discuss critically the possibilities offered for episodic memory assessment by one of the most innovative trends in the technology field, i.e., 360° videos. Immersivity, egocentric view and realism appear to be crucial features of 360° videos enabling them to enhance the ecological validity of classical assessment tools of memory abilities

I, avatar: Towards an extended theory of selfhood in immersive VR

In this paper, I argue that virtual manifestations of selfhood in VR environments have a transformative effect on the users, which in turn has spillover effects in the physical world. I will argue in favor of extending our notion of personal identity as to include VR avatars as negotiable bodies that constitute a genuine part of who we are. Recent research in VR shows that users can experience the Proteus Effect and other lasting psychological changes after being immersed in VR. An extended theory of the self, modeled after the extended mind thesis advanced by Clark and Chalmers (1998), can offer a deeper understanding of how and why immersive virtual experiences have such a transformative effect on users. The early VR scholars had a similar intuition- that “VR is a medium for the extension of body and mind” (Biocca and Delaney 1995), acting like a genuine “reality engine” (Biocca and Levy 1995)

Virtual Reality for Enhanced Ecological Validity and Experimental Control in the Clinical, Affective and Social Neurosciences

This article highlights the potential of virtual reality environments for enhanced ecological validity in the clinical, affective, and social neurosciences

Virtuaalreaalsus toetamas jätkusuutlikku turismi: Ida-Euroopa kogemused

A Thesis for applying for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental SciencesThis study is concerned with the questions: how tourism players perceive sustainable tourism and whether sustainable tourism planning practices include virtual travel as a means to improve visitor experiences. Furthermore, how efficient and satisfactory a substitute, virtual experience may be, as an alternative to a real visit to a nature destination. The goal was set to research the drivers that may favour tourists’ acceptance of virtual substitutions over real experiences. Travel often means transportation and need for place change, but travelling to a destination gives this sense of place change, and a VR facility in that place could provide tourist’s experiences that local nature could give. It is postulated that when compared to individuals with weaker pro-ecological attitudes, those with stronger pro-ecological attitudes are more likely to accept the virtual tourism (VT) opportunities, research suggests that there are some VT features which are not accepted and others which are accepted by tourists The study focussed on the issue of virtual travel advantages and disadvantages and the role of pro-ecological motivations behind the choices between real travel and virtual travel. Research questions: • How tourism managers’ perceptions of sustainable tourism affect sustainable tourism and sustainable tourism planning? (I, II) • How three-dimensional visualisation can facilitate sustainable tourism development and sustainable tourism planning? (I, II, III) • How tourist perceptions of virtual travel vary according to their individual need for emotional arousal from mediated experience, socio-demographic background, travel preferences, and pro-ecological motivations? (III) Documentary analysis (I) and interviews (I,II) were employed. Content analysis technique (I,II) was used. All answers were audio recorded, typed, divided into categories and sorted according to the main topic. 299 questionnaires were collected from tourists visiting Piusa Cave, GLM was employed to analyse results. This study indicated that comprehensive sustainable tourism practices are lacking in Russia. Russian tourism managers’ attitudes towards sustainable tourism are mostly influenced by their personal background in the industry and less by internationally adopted concepts. Even though Russian tourism managers personal attitudes varied significantly and our findings demonstrated contradictory understandings of sustainable tourism phenomena among them, the consensus search rounds showed that the managers do recognise the possible negative impact of tourism on nature, and see sustainable tourism as part of their future business development strategies. The observed lack of understanding about sustainable tourism principles and the perceived low demand for such initiatives in state regulations and among potential clients, are the key reasons for Russian tourism managers’ low motivation towards creating their own sustainable tourism initiatives. They also proposed that virtual travel may be a feasible strategy for destination management where carrying capacities are exceeded or where nature conservation measures are required (I). An individual’s motivation to take part in sustainable tourism planning using three-dimensional visualization may be derived from such social structures as interest, desire, challenge or curiosity. While inclusion of interest groups in three-dimensional visualisation planning may significantly influence the flow and the value of the results of sustainable tourism planning, the same also happens when actually using the three dimensional visualisation tool. Integration of three-dimensional visualisation into sustainable tourism planning from the initialisation of the participatory development process provides more opportunities for comprehensive planning outcomes (II). Provision of several alternative landscape three-dimensional visualisation scenarios provides better sustainable tourism planning results. Virtual travel plays a positive role as a sustainable tourism planning facilitator in participatory development. Factors to consider in maintaining a quality sustainable tourism planning experience include: precise selection of objects for three dimensional visualisation, idealization level and an intuitive user interface. A neutral moderator in three dimensional visualisation planning is thus a prerequisite and is especially important when dealing with the problem of conflicting interests in sustainable tourism planning. This study revealed that tourists accepting of a low level of arousal from virtual travel have lower socio-economic security, they are also less motivated by social interaction and adventure. Tourists most accepting of virtual travel are less striving, and less interested in the societal impact of their lives. It was proposed that virtual travel may serve as a substitute for nature-based travel. The study shows that at the current state of three dimensional visualization technologies, virtual travel is capable of satisfying sophisticated hedonic needs of tourists. Those who like active outdoors, are unsurprisingly, less satisfied with virtual travel. Virtual travel also could be instrumental in nature experiences to tourists with lower travel budgets. Sustainable tourism development within nature-based tourism may reduce damage to the natural environment and local culture by minimising the impact of physical tourism infrastructure (roads, path, buildings) construction in cases where tourists can be offered alternative experiences of virtual travel as complementarities to conventional tourism. Virtual travel may show landscapes and enable tourists to get an impression of natural sightseeing without physical visits to real destinations. This in turn may increase opportunities for virtual tourism activity and benefit local communities. An encountered weakness of virtual travel is that tourists may perceive such travel experiences as less satisfactory in comparison to real trips. This study revealed potential key strategies for overcoming the obstacles for sustainable tourism development in Eastern Europe. Firstly, significant cooperation is required among stakeholders (local authorities, tourism managers, tourists, local population) to tailor more effective international and local legislation in the field of sustainable tourism, and for ensuring proper enforcement of this legislation. Secondly, the promotion of environmental education, including sustainability training among Russian tourism players, is highly recommended. Thirdly, virtual travel even though not an equal substitute for real visits, is a potential solution for implementing sustainable tourism strategies. Thus, further research could aim to establish whether virtual travel derived from real destinations where carrying capacities are exceeded may benefit nature conservation, and could be a means to raising tourists’ awareness of tourism’s environmental and social impacts.Käesolev uurimus otsib vastust küsimusele: kuidas turismi huvirühmad tajuvad säästvat turismi ja säästva turismi planeerimispraktikate parendamist virtuaalse reisimise abiga. Lisaks uuritakse kui tõhusalt ja rahuldavalt asendab virtuaalne kogemus loodusliku sihtkoha tegelikku külastamist. Uurimuse eesmärgiks seati uurida ajendeid, mis soodustavad seda, et turistid eelistavad reaalsetele kogemustele nende virtuaalset asendust. Reisimine tähendab sageli transporti ja asukoha muutust, ning reisimine sihtkohta annab muutuse toimumise tunde ja virtuaalne külastus annab turistile võimaluse kogeda, mida kohalik loodus suudaks pakkuda. Töös postuleeritakse, et tugevama ökoloogilise hoiakuga isikud on suurema tõenäosusega avatud virtuaalse reisimise võimaluste kasutamisele võrreldes isikutega, kel ökoloogiline suhtumine on nõrgem. Uuringud on näidanud, et turistid aktsepteerivad mõningaid virtuaalse reisimise viise, kuid eitavad teisi. Uurimus keskendub virtuaalse reisimise eeliste ja puuduste uurimisele ja ökoloogiliste motiivide rollile, mis mõjutavad reaalse ja virtuaalse reisimise valikuid. Töö väljendab kolmes artiklis kajastatud uurimusi ja nende tulemusi, need on tähistatud vastavalt I, II ja III. Uurimisküsimused: • Kuidas turismi korraldajate säästva turismi tajumine mõjutab säästva turismi pakkumist ja säästva turismi planeerimist? (I, II) • Kuidas kolmemõõtmeline visualiseerimine (3D) soodustab säästva turismi arendamist ja säästva turismi planeerimist? (I, II, III) • Kuidas turistid tajuvad virtuaalset reisimist olenevalt nende elamusvajadusest , sotsiaal-demograafilisest taustast, reisimiseelistustest ja ökoloogilistest hoiakutest? (III) Metoodika Uurimisandmed koguti dokumendianalüüsist (I), süvaintervjuudes ja küsitlusest. Töö jaoks uuriti Venemaal praktiseeritavat säästva turismi korraldamist dokumentide (ametlikud turismitegevust suunavad dokumendid, arengustrateegiad, õigusaktid jt) analüüsi abil. Kasutati ka kontentanalüüsi (II). Intervjuud (I, II) turismiga seonduvate huvirühmade ja kohaliku kogukonna esindajatega lindistati, transkribeeriti, kodeeriti ja kategoriseeriti. Intervjueeriti Moskva (Venemaa) turismiettevõtjaid ja Eesti ettevõtjaid ja kogukonnaliikmeid. Lõuna-Eestis Piusa koobaste külastuskeskuses külastajate seas läbiviidud 299 küsitluse tulemusi analüüsiti üldistatud lineaarse mudeli abil (III). Virtuaalse reisimise vastuvõetavust kontrolliti rakendades väärtuste-uskumuste-normi teooria (Stern et al., 1995) edasiarendust, tuvastamaks, kuidas vastuvõetavust mõjutavad elamusvajadus, ökoloogilised väärtused, uskumused, normid ja kavatsused. Tulemused Uuring tõi välja, et Venemaal puuduvad komplekssed säästva turismi praktikad. Venemaa turismikorraldajate hoiakuid säästva turismi suhtes mõjutab peamiselt nende enda taust selles sektoris ja mitte nii palju rahvusvaheliselt omaksvõetud kontseptsioonid. Kuigi Venemaa turismikorraldajate isiklikud hoiakud varieerusid märgatavalt ja saadud tulemused demonstreerisid vastuolulisi arusaamu säästva turismi fenomeni olemusest, näitas Delphi meetodi rakendamine, et korraldajad tunnevad ära turismi võimaliku negatiivse mõju loodusele ja näevad säästvat turismi ühe osana oma tulevastest äri arendamise strateegiatest. Üksmeele puudumine säästva turismi põhimõtete suhtes ja tunnetatud vähene nõudlus selliste algatuste suhtes riiklikes õigusaktides ja võimalike klientide seas on peamised põhjused, miks vene turismikorraldajatel on madal motivatsioon ise säästva turismi algatustega välja tulla. Nad esitasid seisukoha, et virtuaalne reisimine on sihtkoha juhtimise puhul otstarbekas strateegia, kui piirkonna taluvusvõime on ületatud või vajaks looduskaitse alla võtmist (I). Üksikisiku motivatsioon säästva turismi planeerimises osalemiseks kui kasutatakse kolmemõõtmelist visualiseerimist tuleneb sellistest sotsiaalsetest motivatsiooni allikatest nagu osalussoov, väljakutse või uudishimu. Ehkki kolmemõõtmelise visualiseerimise planeerimise juures osalevad huvigrupid võivad märkimisväärselt mõjutada säästva turismi planeerimise kulgu ja väärtust, toimub sama ka siis, kui kasutatakse kolmemõõtmelise visualiseerimise tööriista. Kolmemõõtmelise visualiseerimise integreerimine säästva turismi planeerimisse kaasava arendamise protsessi algusest peale annab rohkem võimalusi igakülgsete planeerimistulemuste saamiseks (II). Mitme alternatiivse maastiku muutmise 3D-stsenaariumi kasutamine annab paremad säästva turismi planeerimise tulemused. Virtuaalne reisimine mängib kaasava arendamise protsessis soodustab säästva turismi planeerimist. Objektide täpne valimine kolmemõõtmelise visualiseerimise jaoks, detailsuse aste ja intuitiivne kasutaja liides on tegurid, mis teenivad kvaliteetse säästva turismi planeerimise eesmärki. Neutraalne moderaator on kolmemõõtmelise visualiseerimise planeerimise protsessi juures hädavajalik, eriti tähtis on ta siis, kui on tegu huvide konfliktiga säästva turismi planeerimises. Uurimus tõi välja, et virtuaalne reisimine on enam aktsepteeritav inimestele, kel on madal elamusvajadus, ja kes ei hooli sellest, et virtuaalne reisimine pakub vähem elavaid muljeid, koha vahetuse tunnet, ja kokkupuudet loodusega. Virtuaalne reisimine on aktsepteeritavam turistidele, kelle reisivalikute ajendite seas on sotsiaalne suhtlemine ja seikluslikkus vähem olulised. Virtuaalsest reisimisest enam huvitatud turistidväärtustavad vähem edasipüüdlikkust ja sotsiaalset mõjukust. Pakuti välja, et virtuaalne reisimine võiks olla looduspõhise reisimise asenduseks. Uurimus näitas, et kolmemõõtmeliste visualiseerimistehnoloogiate praeguses seisus on virtuaalne reisimine võimeline rahuldama hedonistlikumate, suurema mugavusvajadusega turistide vajadusi. Need, kellele meeldib aktiivne tegevus looduses, on vähem rahul virtuaalse reisimisega. Säästva turismi areng loodusturismi raames võib vähendada looduskeskkonnale ja kohalikule kultuurile tehtavat kahju, minimeerides kahju, mis tekib turismi füüsilise infrastruktuuri rajamisest (teed, rajad, hooned) neil juhtudel, kui turistidele saab pakkuda alternatiivseid kogemusi virtuaalsest reisimisest tavaturismi täiendusena. Virtuaalne reisimine saab näidata maastikke ja võimaldab turistidel koguda muljeid ilma reaalset sihtkohta füüsiliselt külastamata. See omakorda suurendab võimalusi virtuaalse turismi tegevusteks ja on soodne kohalikule kogukonnale. Virtuaalne reisimine on aktsepteeritav alternatiiv suurema mugavusvajadusega inimestele ja vanemaealistele inimestele. Uurimus tõi välja võimalikud peamised strateegiad, kuidas tulla toime takistustega säästva turismi arengus Ida-Euroopas. Esiteks on vaja märkimisväärset koostööd huvigruppide (kohalikud omavalitsused, turismikorraldajad, turistid, kohalikud elanikud) vahel, et luua tõhusamaid rahvusvahelisi ja kohalikke õigusakte säästva turismi valdkonnas ning tagada nende õigusaktide asjakohane ellurakendamine. Teiseks on äärmiselt vajalik edendada keskkonnaharidust, sh säästlikkuse koolituse pakkumist Venemaa turismitegijate seas. Kolmandaks, ehkki virtuaalne reisimine ei ole ehtsa reisimise samaväärne asendaja, on see ikkagi võimalik lahendus, et ellu viia säästva turismi strateegiaid. Seega võiks edaspidine uurimistöö püüda välja selgitada, kas virtuaalne reisimine, mis põhineb reaalsetel sihtkohtadel, kus taluvusvõime on ületatud, võiks tuua kasu loodushoiule ja olla vahend, millega tõsta turistide teadlikkust turismi keskkonna- ja sotsiaalsetest mõjudest.Publication of this thesis is supported by the Estonian University of Life Science and by the Doctoral School of Earth Science and Ecology created under the auspices of European Social Fund. This study was supported by the Estonian Ministry of Science and Education (institutional grant IUT-8-3), the European Commission through the European Regional Development Fund (Centre of Excellence EcolChange, TK 131), and the European Research Council (advanced grant 322603, SIP-VOL+)