Collective sensing: integrating geospatial technologies to understand urban systems : an overview

Cities are complex systems composed of numerous interacting components that evolve over multiple spatio-temporal scales. Consequently, no single data source is sufficient to satisfy the information needs required to map, monitor, model, and ultimately understand and manage our interaction within such urban systems. Remote sensing technology provides a key data source for mapping such environments, but is not sufficient for fully understanding them. In this article we provide a condensed urban perspective of critical geospatial technologies and techniques: (i) Remote Sensing; (ii) Geographic Information Systems; (iii) object-based image analysis; and (iv) sensor webs, and recommend a holistic integration of these technologies within the language of open geospatial consortium (OGC) standards in-order to more fully understand urban systems. We then discuss the potential of this integration and conclude that this extends the monitoring and mapping options beyond “hard infrastructure” by addressing “humans as sensors”, mobility and human-environment interactions, and future improvements to quality of life and of social infrastructures.(VLID)218440

Methodology for high resolution spatial analysis of the physical flood susceptibility of buildings in large river floodplains

The impacts of floods on buildings in urban areas are increasing due to the intensification of extreme weather events, unplanned or uncontrolled settlements and the rising vulnerability of assets. There are some approaches available for assessing the flood damage to buildings and critical infrastructure. To this point, however, it is extremely difficult to adapt these methods widely, due to the lack of high resolution classification and characterisation approaches for built structures. To overcome this obstacle, this work presents: first, a conceptual framework for understanding the physical flood vulnerability and the physical flood susceptibility of buildings, second, a methodological framework for the combination of methods and tools for a large-scale and high-resolution analysis and third, the testing of the methodology in three pilot sites with different development conditions. The conceptual framework narrows down an understanding of flood vulnerability, physical flood vulnerability and physical flood susceptibility and its relation to social and economic vulnerabilities. It describes the key features causing the physical flood susceptibility of buildings as a component of the vulnerability. The methodological framework comprises three modules: (i) methods for setting up a building topology, (ii) methods for assessing the susceptibility of representative buildings of each building type and (iii) the integration of the two modules with technological tools. The first module on the building typology is based on a classification of remote sensing data and GIS analysis involving seven building parameters, which appeared to be relevant for a classification of buildings regarding potential flood impacts. The outcome is a building taxonomic approach. A subsequent identification of representative buildings is based on statistical analyses and membership functions. The second module on the building susceptibility for representative buildings bears on the derivation of depth-physical impact functions. It relates the principal building components, including their heights, dimensions and materials, to the damage from different water levels. The material’s susceptibility is estimated based on international studies on the resistance of building materials and a fuzzy expert analysis. Then depth-physical impact functions are calculated referring to the principal components of the buildings which can be affected by different water levels. Hereby, depth-physical impact functions are seen as a means for the interrelation between the water level and the physical impacts. The third module provides the tools for implementing the methodology. This tool compresses the architecture for feeding the required data on the buildings with their relations to the building typology and the building-type specific depth-physical impact function supporting the automatic process. The methodology is tested in three flood plains pilot sites: (i) in the settlement of the Barrio Sur in Magangué and (ii) in the settlement of La Peña in Cicuco located on the flood plain of Magdalena River, Colombia and (iii) in a settlement of the city of Dresden, located on the Elbe River, Germany. The testing of the methodology covers the description of data availability and accuracy, the steps for deriving the depth-physical impact functions of representative buildings and the final display of the spatial distribution of the physical flood susceptibility. The discussion analyses what are the contributions of this work evaluating the findings of the methodology’s testing with the dissertation goals. The conclusions of the work show the contributions and limitations of the research in terms of methodological and empirical advancements and the general applicability in flood risk management.:1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 State of the art 2 1.3 Problem statement 6 1.4 Objectives 6 1.5 Approach and outline 6 2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 9 2.1 Flood vulnerability 10 2.2 Physical flood vulnerability 12 2.3 Physical flood susceptibility 14 3 METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK 23 3.1 Module 1: Building taxonomy for settlements 24 3.1.1 Extraction of building features 24 3.1.2 Derivation of building parameters for setting up a building taxonomy 38 3.1.3 Selection of representative buildings for a building susceptibility assessment 51 3.2 Module 2: Physical susceptibility of representative buildings 57 3.2.1 Identification of building components 57 3.2.2 Qualification of building material susceptibility 62 3.2.3 Derivation of a depth-physical impact function 71 3.3 Module 3: Technological integration 77 3.3.1 Combination of the depth-physical impact function with the building taxonomic code 77 3.3.2 Tools supporting the physical susceptibility analysis 78 3.3.3 The users and their requirements 79 4 RESULTS OF THE METHODOLOGY TESTING 83 4.1 Pilot site “Kleinzschachwitz” – Dresden, Germany – Elbe River 83 4.1.1 Module 1: Building taxonomy – “Kleinzschachwitz” 85 4.1.2 Module 2: Physical susceptibility of representative buildings – “Kleinzschachwitz” 97 4.1.3 Module 3: Technological integration – “Kleinzschachwitz” 103 4.2 Pilot site “La Peña” – Cicuco, Colombia – Magdalena River 107 4.2.1 Module 1: Building taxonomy – “La Peña” 108 4.2.2 Module 2: Physical susceptibility of representative buildings – “La Peña” 121 4.2.3 Module 3: Technological integration– “La Peña” 129 4.3 Pilot site “Barrio Sur” – Magangué, Colombia – Magdalena River 133 4.3.1 Module 1: Building taxonomy – “Barrio Sur” 133 4.3.2 Module 2: Physical susceptibility of representative buildings – “Barrio Sur” 141 4.3.3 Module 3: Technological integration – “Barrio Sur” 147 4.4 Empirical findings 151 4.4.1 Empirical findings of Module 1 151 4.4.2 Empirical findings of Module 2 155 4.4.3 Empirical findings of Module 3 157 4.4.4 Guidance of the methodology 157 5 DISCUSSION 161 5.1 Discussion on the conceptual framework 161 5.2 Discussion on the methodological framework 161 5.2.1 Discussion on Module 1: the building taxonomic approach 162 5.2.2 Discussion on Module 2: the depth-physical impact function 164 6 CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK 167 6.1 Conclusions 167 6.2 Outlook 168 REFERENCES 171 INDEX OF FIGURES 199 INDEX OF TABLES 201 APPENDICES 203In vielen Städten nehmen die Auswirkungen von Hochwasser auf Gebäude aufgrund immer extremerer Wetterereignisse, unkontrollierbarer Siedlungsbauten und der steigenden Vulnerabilität von Besitztümern stetig zu. Es existieren zwar bereits Ansätze zur Beurteilung von Wasserschäden an Gebäuden und Infrastrukturknotenpunkten. Doch ist es bisher schwierig, diese Methoden großräumig anzuwenden, da es an einer präzisen Klassifizierung und Charakterisierung von Gebäuden und anderen baulichen Anlagen fehlt. Zu diesem Zweck sollen in dieser Arbeit erstens ein Konzept für ein genaueres Verständnis der physischen Vulnerabilität von Gebäuden gegenüber Hochwasser dargelegt, zweitens ein methodisches Verfahren zur Kombination der bestehenden Methoden und Hilfsmittel mit dem Ziel einer großräumigen und hochauflösenden Analyse erarbeitet und drittens diese Methode an drei Pilotstandorten mit unterschiedlichem Ausbauzustand erprobt werden. Die Rahmenbedingungen des Konzepts grenzen die Begriffe der Vulnerabilität, der physischen Vulnerabilität und der physischen Anfälligkeit gegenüber Hochwasser ein und erörtern deren Beziehung zur sozialen und ökonomischen Vulnerabilität. Es werden die Merkmale der physischen Anfälligkeit von Gebäuden gegenüber Hochwasser als Bestandteil der Vulnerabilität definiert. Das methodische Verfahren umfasst drei Module: (i) Methoden zur Erstellung einer Gebäudetypologie, (ii) Methoden zur Bewertung der Anfälligkeit repräsentativer Gebäude jedes Gebäudetyps und (iii) die Kombination der beiden Module mit Hilfe technologischer Hilfsmittel. Das erste Modul zur Gebäudetypologie basiert auf der Klassifizierung von Fernerkundungsdaten und GIS-Analysen anhand von sieben Gebäudeparametern, die sich für die Klassifizierung von Gebäuden bezüglich ihres Risikopotenzials bei Hochwasser als wichtig erweisen. Daraus ergibt sich ein Ansatz zur Gebäudeklassifizierung. Die anschließende Ermittlung repräsentativer Gebäude beruht auf statistischen Analysen und Zugehörigkeitsfunktionen. Das zweite Modul zur Anfälligkeit repräsentativer Gebäude beruht auf der Ableitung von Funktion von Wasserstand und physischer Einwirkung. Es setzt die relevanten Gebäudemerkmale, darunter Höhe, Maße und Materialien, in Beziehung zum erwartbaren Schaden bei unterschiedlichen Wasserständen. Die Materialanfälligkeit wird aufgrund internationaler Studien zur Festigkeit von Baustoffen sowie durch Anwendung eines Fuzzy-Logic-Expertensystems eingeschätzt. Anschließend werden Wasserstand-Schaden-Funktionen unter Einbeziehung der Hauptgebäudekomponenten berechnet, die durch unterschiedliche Wasserstände in Mitleidenschaft gezogen werden können. Funktion von Wasserstand und physischer Einwirkung dienen hier dazu, den jeweiligen Wasserstand und die physischen Auswirkung in Beziehung zueinander zu setzen. Das dritte Modul stellt die zur Umsetzung der Methoden notwendigen Hilfsmittel vor. Zur Unterstützung des automatisierten Verfahrens dienen Hilfsmittel, die die Gebäudetypologie mit der Funktion von Wasserstand und physischer Einwirkung für Gebäude in Hochwassergebieten kombinieren. Die Methoden wurden anschließend in drei hochwassergefährdeten Pilotstandorten getestet: (i) in den Siedlungsgebieten von Barrio Sur in Magangué und (ii) von La Pena in Cicuco, zwei Überschwemmungsgebiete des Magdalenas in Kolumbien, und (iii) im Stadtgebiet von Dresden, das an der Elbe liegt. Das Testverfahren umfasst die Beschreibung der Datenverfügbarkeit und genauigkeit, die einzelnen Schritte zur Analyse der. Funktion von Wasserstand und physischer Einwirkung repräsentativer Gebäude sowie die Darstellung der räumlichen Verteilung der physischen Anfälligkeit für Hochwasser. In der Diskussion wird der Beitrag dieser Arbeit zur Beurteilung der Erkenntnisse der getesteten Methoden anhand der Ziele dieser Dissertation analysiert. Die Folgerungen beleuchten abschließend die Fortschritte und auch Grenzen der Forschung hinsichtlich methodischer und empirischer Entwicklungen sowie deren allgemeine Anwendbarkeit im Bereich des Hochwasserschutzes.:1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 State of the art 2 1.3 Problem statement 6 1.4 Objectives 6 1.5 Approach and outline 6 2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 9 2.1 Flood vulnerability 10 2.2 Physical flood vulnerability 12 2.3 Physical flood susceptibility 14 3 METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK 23 3.1 Module 1: Building taxonomy for settlements 24 3.1.1 Extraction of building features 24 3.1.2 Derivation of building parameters for setting up a building taxonomy 38 3.1.3 Selection of representative buildings for a building susceptibility assessment 51 3.2 Module 2: Physical susceptibility of representative buildings 57 3.2.1 Identification of building components 57 3.2.2 Qualification of building material susceptibility 62 3.2.3 Derivation of a depth-physical impact function 71 3.3 Module 3: Technological integration 77 3.3.1 Combination of the depth-physical impact function with the building taxonomic code 77 3.3.2 Tools supporting the physical susceptibility analysis 78 3.3.3 The users and their requirements 79 4 RESULTS OF THE METHODOLOGY TESTING 83 4.1 Pilot site “Kleinzschachwitz” – Dresden, Germany – Elbe River 83 4.1.1 Module 1: Building taxonomy – “Kleinzschachwitz” 85 4.1.2 Module 2: Physical susceptibility of representative buildings – “Kleinzschachwitz” 97 4.1.3 Module 3: Technological integration – “Kleinzschachwitz” 103 4.2 Pilot site “La Peña” – Cicuco, Colombia – Magdalena River 107 4.2.1 Module 1: Building taxonomy – “La Peña” 108 4.2.2 Module 2: Physical susceptibility of representative buildings – “La Peña” 121 4.2.3 Module 3: Technological integration– “La Peña” 129 4.3 Pilot site “Barrio Sur” – Magangué, Colombia – Magdalena River 133 4.3.1 Module 1: Building taxonomy – “Barrio Sur” 133 4.3.2 Module 2: Physical susceptibility of representative buildings – “Barrio Sur” 141 4.3.3 Module 3: Technological integration – “Barrio Sur” 147 4.4 Empirical findings 151 4.4.1 Empirical findings of Module 1 151 4.4.2 Empirical findings of Module 2 155 4.4.3 Empirical findings of Module 3 157 4.4.4 Guidance of the methodology 157 5 DISCUSSION 161 5.1 Discussion on the conceptual framework 161 5.2 Discussion on the methodological framework 161 5.2.1 Discussion on Module 1: the building taxonomic approach 162 5.2.2 Discussion on Module 2: the depth-physical impact function 164 6 CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK 167 6.1 Conclusions 167 6.2 Outlook 168 REFERENCES 171 INDEX OF FIGURES 199 INDEX OF TABLES 201 APPENDICES 203El impacto de las inundaciones sobre los edificios en zonas urbanas es cada vez mayor debido a la intensificación de los fenómenos meteorológicos extremos, asentamientos no controlados o no planificados y su creciente vulnerabilidad. Hay métodos disponibles para evaluar los daños por inundación en edificios e infraestructuras críticas. Sin embargo, es muy difícil implementar estos métodos sistemáticamente en grandes áreas debido a la falta de clasificación y caracterización de estructuras construidas en resoluciones detalladas. Para superar este obstáculo, este trabajo se enfoca, en primer lugar, en desarrollar un marco conceptual para comprender la vulnerabilidad y susceptibilidad física de edificios por inudaciones, en segundo lugar, en desarrollar un marco metodológico para la combinación de los métodos y herramientas para una análisis de alta resolución y en tercer lugar, la prueba de la metodología en tres sitios experimentales, con distintas condiciones de desarrollo. El marco conceptual se enfoca en comprender la vulnerabilidad y susceptibility de las edificaciones frente a inundaciones, y su relación con la vulnerabilidad social y económica. En él se describen las principales características físicas de la susceptibilidad de edificicaiones como un componente de la vulnerabilidad. El marco metodológico consta de tres módulos: (i) métodos para la derivación de topología de construcciones, (ii) métodos para evaluar la susceptibilidad de edificios representativos y (iii) la integración de los dos módulos a través herramientas tecnológicas. El primer módulo de topología de construcciones se basa en una clasificación de datos de sensoramiento rémoto y procesamiento SIG para la extracción de siete parámetros de las edficaciones. Este módulo parece ser aplicable para una clasificación de los edificios en relación con los posibles impactos de las inundaciones. El resultado es una taxonomía de las edificaciones y una posterior identificación de edificios representativos que se basa en análisis estadísticos y funciones de pertenencia. El segundo módulo consiste en el análisis de susceptibilidad de las construcciones representativas a través de funciones de profundidad del impacto físico. Las cuales relacionan los principales componentes de la construcción, incluyendo sus alturas, dimensiones y materiales con los impactos físicos a diferentes niveles de agua. La susceptibilidad del material se calcula con base a estudios internacionales sobre la resistencia de los materiales y un análisis a través de sistemas expertos difusos. Aquí, las funciones de profundidad de impacto físico son considerados como un medio para la interrelación entre el nivel del agua y los impactos físicos. El tercer módulo proporciona las herramientas necesarias para la aplicación de la metodología. Estas herramientas tecnológicas consisten en la arquitectura para la alimentación de los datos relacionados a la tipología de construcciones con las funciones de profundidad del impacto físico apoyado en procesos automáticos. La metodología es probada en tres sitios piloto: (i) en el Barrio Sur en Magangué y (ii) en la barrio de La Peña en Cicuco situado en la llanura inundable del Río Magdalena, Colombia y (iii) en barrio Kleinzschachwitz de la ciudad de Dresden, situado a orillas del río Elba, en Alemania. Las pruebas de la metodología abarca la descripción de la disponibilidad de los datos y la precisión, los pasos a seguir para obtener las funciones profundidad de impacto físico de edificios representativos y la presentación final de la distribución espacial de la susceptibilidad física frente inundaciones El discusión analiza las aportaciones de este trabajo y evalua los resultados de la metodología con relación a los objetivos. Las conclusiones del trabajo, muestran los aportes y limitaciones de la investigación en términos de avances metodológicos y empíricos y la aplicabilidad general de gestión del riesgo de inundaciones.:1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 State of the art 2 1.3 Problem statement 6 1.4 Objectives 6 1.5 Approach and outline 6 2 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 9 2.1 Flood vulnerability 10 2.2 Physical flood vulnerability 12 2.3 Physical flood susceptibility 14 3 METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK 23 3.1 Module 1: Building taxonomy for settlements 24 3.1.1 Extraction of building features 24 3.1.2 Derivation of building parameters for setting up a building taxonomy 38 3.1.3 Selection of representative buildings for a building susceptibility assessment 51 3.2 Module 2: Physical susceptibility of representative buildings 57 3.2.1 Identification of building components 57 3.2.2 Qualification of building material susceptibility 62 3.2.3 Derivation of a depth-physical impact function 71 3.3 Module 3: Technological integration 77 3.3.1 Combination of the depth-physical impact function with the building taxonomic code 77 3.3.2 Tools supporting the physical susceptibility analysis 78 3.3.3 The users and their requirements 79 4 RESULTS OF THE METHODOLOGY TESTING 83 4.1 Pilot site “Kleinzschachwitz” – Dresden, Germany – Elbe River 83 4.1.1 Module 1: Building taxonomy – “Kleinzschachwitz” 85 4.1.2 Module 2: Physical susceptibility of representative buildings – “Kleinzschachwitz” 97 4.1.3 Module 3: Technological integration – “Kleinzschachwitz” 103 4.2 Pilot site “La Peña” – Cicuco, Colombia – Magdalena River 107 4.2.1 Module 1: Building taxonomy – “La Peña” 108 4.2.2 Module 2: Physical susceptibility of representative buildings – “La Peña” 121 4.2.3 Module 3: Technological integration– “La Peña” 129 4.3 Pilot site “Barrio Sur” – Magangué, Colombia – Magdalena River 133 4.3.1 Module 1: Building taxonomy – “Barrio Sur” 133 4.3.2 Module 2: Physical susceptibility of representative buildings – “Barrio Sur” 141 4.3.3 Module 3: Technological integration – “Barrio Sur” 147 4.4 Empirical findings 151 4.4.1 Empirical findings of Module 1 151 4.4.2 Empirical findings of Module 2 155 4.4.3 Empirical findings of Module 3 157 4.4.4 Guidance of the methodology 157 5 DISCUSSION 161 5.1 Discussion on the conceptual framework 161 5.2 Discussion on the methodological framework 161 5.2.1 Discussion on Module 1: the building taxonomic approach 162 5.2.2 Discussion on Module 2: the depth-physical impact function 164 6 CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK 167 6.1 Conclusions 167 6.2 Outlook 168 REFERENCES 171 INDEX OF FIGURES 199 INDEX OF TABLES 201 APPENDICES 20

True colours of urban green spaces : identifying and assessing the qualities of green spaces in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

This thesis starts from the proposition that the ingrained perception of urban green space as being synonymous only with fairly well maintained amenity parkland is too narrow and generally overlooks the many environmental and social benefits that other types of green space and their natural habitats bestow on urban residents and wildlife. A critical review of the literature on the benefits which different kinds of green space confer on urban residents in environmental, social, health and well being and economic terms confirms the need for a more holistic approach to the study of green spaces in cities and also highlights the need to develop and realise a more comprehensive "ontology" of urban green space in tropical countries, a fundamental task which is a main concern of the present thesis. From reviewing the classification schemes or typologies used in different countries to formally recognise and to distinguish different types of green space, the author develops a new, expanded typology for urban green space adapted to Malaysian conditions, aiming to use this as far as possible as a framework to categorise the green spaces of Kuala Lumpur (KL). KL provides a particularly interesting case study as a rapidly growing city in a developing country with a tropical climate, a context where there has been relatively little research on urban green space, despite shade being particularly appreciated in very hot climates. Also KL has experienced much loss of green space in recent decades: on its periphery from urban expansion; and around the city centre from the drive, fuelled by economic growth, to use central land more intensively. The main empirical analysis in the thesis uses data obtained from remotely sensed satellite images of high resolution (from the IKONOS satellite) to try to identify all vegetated forms of land cover in KL and to discern their nature, primarily whether trees, shrubs or grass, regardless of their location, using object oriented software to process the IKONOS data. The degree to which the different types and functions of green space can be identified from IKONOS imagery using both semi-automated and manual methods of visual interpretation is then compared. The results show that, using high resolution IKONOS imagery, it is not possible to identify unambiguously all the types of green land use or green land cover that are found in the proposed, new typology of green space, either by using semi-automatic classification or by visual interpretation, although the latter enables more types of green space to be distinguished with confidence. A key result of the preceding analysis, nevertheless, is to produce maps of green space showing the foregoing 3 classes of vegetation (plus water, bare ground and built up areas) for the entire city in very fine detail using first a semi-automated classification followed by selective manual revision. This produces a more complete picture of the geography of these 3 basic types of green space across the whole city than the typical picture purely or mainly of public parks generated from the typologies used by city governments in developing countries, including KL, simply reflecting their traditional concerns being largely restricted to the latter kinds of green space. These finely detailed maps showing the complex mosaic of green space are, in some respects, the most important result of the thesis. These maps of green space produced from satellite data are linked in a geographic information system (GIS) with data on land use for small land parcels and, using dasymetric methods, with data on population from the census to produce a range of alternative, illuminating perspectives on the nature and extent of green space across the whole city, often at a very fine geographical scale, and including an analysis of the relative provision (or lack thereof) of green space over the whole city; this also yields insight into the role of particular green spaces in the wider urban system. Subsequently, the use of GIS operations enables officially recognised green spaces and the even more extensive and diverse areas of green space not officially recognised to be mapped and examined separately, possibly for the first time in KL. A social survey designed mainly for urban planners and landscape architects in KL was carried out mainly to learn and study their views on the nature, roles and benefits of urban green space, on the new expanded typology, on the problems of protecting urban green space in KL and on what attributes of green spaces they considered should be seen as most important when considering how much priority a particular green space should be given for preservation. From some 38 environmental and social criteria the 41 respondents considered very important, 31 criteria (13 environmental and 18 social) were chosen as attributes to use in evaluating 17 different green spaces of various types in different parts of the city through assessment on site by a small team of trained assessors. A smaller subset of 4 environmental and 3 "social" (actually all accessibility) criteria, selected from the foregoing 31 criteria, was identified which could be estimated "remotely" by "desk based" methods i.e. by using the satellite data and the population data held in our GIS, as well as by direct field survey. It was then possible to compare the 3 sets of evaluations for the 17 green areas in the form of overall rankings in turn on the environmental and then accessibility criteria: firstly the ranks of the sites on all 13 environmental criteria, then on the subset of 4 environmental criteria (both of the latter from field assessment) and finally on the same subset of 4 criteria estimated "remotely". The equivalent overall rankings for the 18 social amenity criteria, then the subset of 3 accessibility indicators from field observation and lastly the same subset of 3 but estimated remotely were then compared. The results showed clear similarities and strong correlations between the three sets of evaluations for the 4 environmental criteria measuring aspects of vegetative cover and "green connectivity" but less consistent similarity for the social and accessibility measures, with only weak correlations between rankings on the field and remote estimates for the 3 accessibility indices. The main conclusion is therefore that "remote" evaluation could potentially have a useful role, complementary to ground surveys, in monitoring and assessing green spaces as regards some key environmental criteria and, more debatably, may also be able to provide useful measures of accessibility, which are difficult to estimate from field visits. However, observation on site is necessary for assessment of nearly all the social criteria relevant to evaluating urban green spaces

Using the urban landscape mosaic to develop and validate methods for assessing the spatial distribution of urban ecosystem service potential

The benefits that humans receive from nature are not fully understood. The ecosystem service framework has been developed to improve understanding of the benefits, or ecosystem services, that humans receive from the natural environment. Although the ecosystem service framework is designed to provide insights into the state of ecosystem services, it has been criticised for its neglect of spatial analysis. This thesis contains a critical discussion on the spatial relationships between ecosystem services and the urban landscape in Salford, Greater Manchester. An innovative approach has been devised for creating a landscape mosaic, which uses remotely-sensed spectral indices and land cover measurements. Five ecosystem services are considered: carbon storage, water flow mitigation, climate stress mitigation, aesthetics, and recreation. Analysis of ecosystem service generation uses the landscape mosaic, hotspot identification and measurements of spatial association. Ecosystem service consumption is evaluated via original perspectives of physical accessibility through a transport network, and greenspace visibility over a 3D surface. Results suggest that the landscape mosaic accuracy compares favourably to a map created using traditional classification methods. Ecosystem service patterns are unevenly distributed across Salford. The regulating services draw from similar natural resource locations, while cultural services have more diverse sources. The accessibility and visibility analysis provides evidence for the importance of urban trees as mitigators of ‘grey’ views, and urban parks as accessible producers of multiple services. Comprehensive ecosystem service analysis requires integration of quantitative and qualitative approaches. Evaluation of spatial relationships between ecosystem services and the physical landscapes in this thesis provides a practical method for improved measurement and management of the natural environment in urban areas. These findings can be used by urban planners and decision makers to integrate ecological considerations into proposed development schemes

Avaliações hidrológicas, hidráulicas e multicriteriais de susceptibilidade às inundações em áreas urbanas costeiras : estudo de caso da bacia do Rio Juqueriquerê no Brasil

Orientadores: Antonio Carlos Zuffo, Monzur Alam ImteazTese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Civil, Arquitetura e Urbanismo e Swinburne University of Technology (Australia)Resumo: O desenvolvimento significativo de Caraguatatuba é traduzido pela sua potencialidade ao turismo, exploração de gás, proximidade do Porto de São Sebastião e ampliação do complexo viário da Tamoios, particularmente na Bacia do Rio Juqueriquerê, que é a maior planície não urbanizada do litoral norte de São Paulo, Brasil. A área é constituída por baixas declividades e lençóis freáticos rasos, cercada pelas altas escarpas da Serra do Mar. Além disso, é afetada por chuvas orográficas e variação de marés, contribuindo para a ocorrência natural de inundações. Apesar da área à jusante ser densamente urbanizada, a bacia não é propriamente monitorada, tornando a previsão de futuros cenários com a tradicional modelagem hidrológica muito desafiadora, devido à falta de dados representativos. No presente estudo, a análise multicriterial para tomada de decisão (MCDA) foi utilizada para determinar os critérios mais impactantes na susceptibilidade às inundações do local. O cenário futuro foi baseado no uso e cobertura da terra proposto pelo Plano Diretor de Caraguatatuba. A pesquisa com especialistas usando o método Delphi e o Processo de Análise Hierárquica (AHP) foram associados para a atribuição e comparação por pares dos seguintes critérios: elevação, densidade de drenagem, chuva, declividade e Curva Número (CN), do Serviço de Conservação do Solo (SCS) dos Estados Unidos. A bacia foi discretizada em 11 sub-bacias, e vários métodos estatísticos e empíricos foram empregados para a parametrização do modelo multicriterial. Após a definição dos critérios e tratamento estatístico dos julgamentos de todos os especialistas, uma faixa limitada de pesos foi gerada, variando de 8,36 a 8,88, a qual foi efetivamente convertida para uma ampla faixa de valores de prioridade pelo uso de uma abordagem extendida do método AHP. A escala de julgamento da raiz quadrada aplicada no estudo gerou resultados de boa qualidade, onde a taxa de consistência foi de 0,0218 e o índice de consistência foi de 0,0244. Além disso, a análise de sensibilidade revelou a coerência do vetor peso, por meio da variação do critério de elevação (+10 % e -5%), afetando os pesos mas não a hierarquia. Posteriormente, todos os critérios foram implementados no sistema de informações geográficas (SIG). Foi realizada uma discussão minuciosa sobre a aquisição da variável CN, levando em consideração os tipos de solo brasileiros e as condições de saturação locais. As limitações do método SCS-CN foram destacadas, especialmente no que se refere à sua aplicação em bacias não monitoradas, quando não é possível calibrar ou validar o modelo. A estimativa e a calibração dos coeficientes de rugosidade de Manning nos principais cursos d'água também foram desenvolvidas no estudo, com base nos dados observados e medidos em trabalhos de campo. Os desvios médios absolutos entre os valores de Manning variaram de 0,004 a 0,008, mostrando que a metodologia proposta pode ser aplicada em quaisquer áreas de estudo, tanto para calibrar quanto para atualizar os coeficientes de rugosidade de Manning em diferentes períodos. A distribuição da função gamma foi utilizada para o cálculo das chuvas de projeto, que posteriormente foram utilizadas para a análise de correlação entre chuvas anuais e diárias. O Sistema de Análise Fluvial do Centro de Engenharia Hidrológica em 2 dimensões (HEC-RAS 2D) e o Sistema de Modelagem Hidrológica (HEC-HMS) foram utilizados para a calibração do parâmetro CN e para a validação do modelo. Os limites de inundação gerados no processo de vadidação (pelo modelo HEC-RAS 2D) foram muito similares aos gerados pela abordagem MCDA, correspondendo a 93,92 % e 96,31 %, respectivamente. Os métodos de interpolação foram essenciais para a distribuição temporal e espacial dos dados meteorológicos no modelo de precipitação-vazão usados para validação, e também no modelo MCDA implementado no SIG. A determinação final da probabilidade de susceptibilidade às inundações nas planícies estudadas foi baseada na soma ponderada espacial dos critérios atribuídos previamente. Por fim, os mapas de susceptibilidade às inundações foram gerados para os diferentes cenários. As simulações de diferentes padrões de chuva mostraram que este critério influenciou fortemente na probabilidade de suscetibilidade às inundações. Para a simulação de maiores elevações e chuvas máximas, o índice de susceptibilidade às inundações foi 4 (do total de 5). A maior contribuição do estudo foi na aquisição de parâmetros confiáveis por meio das técnicas propostas, que também podem ser utilizadas em outras áreas, principalmente onde os dados são escassos e há complexas limitações físicas envolvidas, visando o desenvolvimento urbano sustentável da regiãoAbstract: The significant development of Caraguatatuba Municipality is translated by its tourism potentiality, gas exploration, proximity to the Port of Sao Sebastiao and extension of the Tamoios Highway complex, particularly in the Juqueriquere River Basin, which is the major non-urbanised plains of the northern coastline of Sao Paulo, Brazil. The area is comprised of low slopes and shallow water tables, surrounded by the high elevations of the Serra do Mar mountains. Additionally, It is affected by orographic rainfalls and tide variation, contributing to the natural occurrence of floods. Even though the downstream area is densely urbanised, the watershed is not properly gauged, making it a challenging task for the prediction of future scenarios with the traditional hydrological modelling approach, due to the lack of representative data. In the current study, multicriteria decision analysis (MCDA) were used to determine the mostly impacting criteria to the local flood susceptibility. The future scenario was based on the land use and land cover proposed by the City Master Plan of Caraguatatuba. The expert-based survey using the Delphi method and the analytical hierarchical process (AHP) were associated with the attribution and pairwise comparison of the following criteria: elevation, density drainage, rainfall, slope and curve number (CN), from the US Soil Conservation Service (SCS). The watershed was discretised in 11 sub-basins, and several statistical and empirical methods were employed for the parameterisation of the multicriteria model. After the definition of the criteria and the statistical treatment of the judgements of all experts, a limited range of weights was derived, varying from 8.36 to 8.88, which was effectively converted to a larger ratio of priority values by the use of an extended approach of the AHP methodology. The root square judgement scale applied in the study generated good-quality results, where the consistency ratio was 0.0218 and the consistency index was 0.0244. Besides, the sensitivity analysis revealed the coherence of the weight vector, by the variation of the elevation criterion (+10 % and -5%), affecting the weights but not the hierarchy. Further, all the criteria were implemented in the geographical information system (GIS). There was a thorough discussion regarding the acquisition of the CN variable, taking into consideration the Brazilian soil types and the local saturated conditions. The constraints of the SCS-CN method were highlighted, especially regarding its application in ungauged basins, where it is not possible to calibrate or validate the model. The estimation and calibration of the Manning's roughness coefficients of the main watercourses were also developed in the study, based on the observed and measured data in field campaigns. The mean absolute deviations between the estimated and the calibrated Manning's values varied from 0.004 and 0.008, showing that the proposed methodology might be applied in any study areas, both to calibrate and to update the Manning's roughness coefficients in different periods. The gamma-function distribution was carried out to calculate the design rainfalls, which were later used for the correlation analysis of the annual and the daily rainfalls. The Hydrologic Engineering Center's River Analysis System 2D (HEC-RAS 2D) and the Hydrologic Modelling System (HEC-HMS) were used for the calibration of the CN variable and for the model validation. The inundation boundaries derived in the validation process (by the HEC-RAS 2D model) were very similar to the ones achieved by the MCDA approach, corresponding to 93.92 % and 96.31 %, respectively. The interpolation methods were essential for the spatial and temporal distribution of the meteorological data in the rainfall-runoff model used for validation, and also in the GIS-based MCDA model. The final determination of the likelihood of flood susceptibility in the studied plains was based on the spatially weighted summation of the previously attributed criteria. Finally, flood susceptibility maps were generated for the different scenarios. The simulations of different rainfall patterns showed that this criterion profoundly influenced the likelihood to flood susceptibility. For the simulation of higher elevations and maximum rainfalls, the achieved index of flood susceptibility was 4 (out of 5). The main contribution of the study was the achievement of reliable parameters by the proposed techniques, that may also be used in other areas, mainly where data is scarce and complex physical constraints are involved, targeting the sustainable urban development of the regionDoutoradoRecursos Hidricos, Energeticos e AmbientaisDoutora em Engenharia Civi