Competition Between Intra and Intermolecular Triel Bonds. Complexes Between Naphthalene Derivatives and Neutral or Anionic Lewis Bases

A TrF2 group (Tr = B, Al, Ga, In, Tl) is placed on one of the α positions of naphthalene, and its ability to engage in a triel bond (TrB) with a weak (NCH) and strong (NC−) nucleophile is assessed by ab initio calculations. As a competitor, an NH2 group is placed on the neighboring Cα, from which point it forms an intramolecular TrB with the TrF2 group. The latter internal TrB reduces the intensity of the π-hole on the Tr atom, decreasing its ability to engage in a second external TrB. The intermolecular TrB is weakened by a factor of about two for the smaller Tr atoms but is less severe for the larger Tl. The external TrB can be quite strong nonetheless; it varies from a minimum of 8 kcal/mol for the weak NCH base, up to as much as 70 kcal/mol for CN−. Likewise, the appearance of an external TrB to a strong base like CN− lessens the ability of the Tr to engage in an internal TrB, to the point where such an intramolecular TrB becomes questionable

Comparison of σ-Hole and π-Hole Tetrel Bonds in Complexes of Borazine with TH3F and F2TO/H2TO (T=C,Si,Ge)

The complexes between borazine and TH3F/F2TO/H2TO (T=C, Si, Ge) are investigated with high-level quantum chemical calculations. Borazine has three sites of negative electrostatic potential: the N atom, the ring center, and the H atom of the B-H bond, while TH3F and F2TO/H2TO provide the σ-hole and π-hole, respectively, for the tetrel bond. The N atom of borazine is the favored site for both the σ and π-hole tetrel bonds. Less stable dimers include a σ-tetrel bond to the borazine ring center and to the BH proton. The π-hole tetrel-bonded complexes are more strongly bound than aretheirσ-hole counterparts. Due to the coexistence of both T···N tetrel and B···O triel bonding, the complexes of borazine with F2TO/H2TO (T= Si and Ge) are very stable, with interaction energies up to -108 kcal/mol. The strongly bonded complexes are accompanied by substantial net charge transfer from F2TO/H2TO to borazine. Polarization energy makes a contribution comparable with electrostatic for the moderately or strongly bonded complexes but is small in their weaker analogues

Dispersion, rehybridization, and pentacoordination: keys to understand clustering of boron and aluminum hydrides and halides

The structure, stability, and bonding characteristics of dimers and trimers involving BX3 and AlX3 (X = H, F, Cl) in the gas phase, many of them explored for the first time, were investigated using different DFT (B3LYP, B3LYP/D3BJ, and M06-2X) and ab initio (MP2 and G4) methods together with different energy decomposition formalisms, namely, many-body interaction-energy and localized molecular orbital energy decomposition analysis. The electron density of the clusters investigated was analyzed with QTAIM, electron localization function, NCIPLOT, and adaptive natural density partitioning approaches. Our results for triel hydride dimers and Al2X6 (X = F, Cl) clusters are in good agreement with previous studies in the literature, but in contrast with the general accepted idea that B2F6 and B2Cl6 do not exist, we have found that they are predicted to be weakly bound systems if dispersion interactions are conveniently accounted for in the theoretical schemes used. Dispersion interactions are also dominant in both homo- and heterotrimers involving boron halide monomers. Surprisingly, B3F9 and B3Cl9 C3v cyclic trimers, in spite of exhibiting rather strong B-X (X = F, Cl) interactions, were found to be unstable with respect to the isolated monomers due to the high energetic cost of the rehybridization of the B atom, which is larger than the two- and three-body stabilization contributions when the cyclic is formed. Another important feature is the enhanced stability of both homo- and heterotrimers in which Al is the central atom because Al is systematically pentacoordinated, whereas this is not the case when the central atom is B, which is only tri- or tetra-coordinatedPID2021-125207NB-C31, PID2021-125207NB-C32, PID2019-110091GB-I0

Structures and Energetics of Clusters Surrounding Diatomic Anions Stabilized by Hydrogen, Halogen, and other Noncovalent Bonds

Diatomic anions CN-, NO-, and OH- are surrounded by 2, 3, and 4 ligand molecules drawn from the HF, HCl, XF, YF2, ZF3, TF4, and TrF3 set wherein X= Cl,Br, Y=S,Se, Z=P,As, T=Si,Ge, and Tr=Al,Ga. In the case of two ligands, both interact with the N of NO- and the O of OH-, but one approaches either end of CN-. Unlike the H and halogen bonding units, as the number of ligands increases there is a tendency for chalcogen, pnicogen, tetrel, and triel-bonding ligands to form a cage around the central anion, with strong inter-ligand noncovalent bonds. There are a number of unusual features observed as well, including proton transfers from the ligands to the central anion, halogen atom sharing, linearization of normally highly bent YF2 molecules, F-sharing between tetrel atoms, and OH-⸳⸳F H-bonds. Triel-bonding ligands engage in the strongest binding but the patterns of the other types of ligands depend upon the particular central anion and the number of ligands involved

Triel-Bonded Complexes Between TrR3 (Tr = B, Al, Ga; R = H, F, Cl, Br, CH3) and Pyrazine

Complexes between TrR3 (Tr = B, Al, Ga; R= H, F, Cl, Br, CH3)molecules and pyrazine have been characterized at the MP2 and CCSD(T) levels of theory. The adducts can be grouped according to the type of molecular arrangement. The first situation places the Tr atom in the plane of the pyrazine ring and contains a triel bond to the N lone pair. For the boron complexes the orbital interaction energy is almost equal to the electrostatic component, while the former is only half the latter for Tr= Al and Ga. The two monomers are stacked above one another in the second configuration, which depends to a greater degree upon orbital interaction and dispersion. The former complexes are more strongly bonded than the latter. Interaction energies (Eint) for the stronger complexes vary between -50 and -20 kcal/mol for BBr3 and Ga(CH3)3paired respectively with pyrazine. Eint is much smaller for the stacked configurations, ranging from -8 for GaF3 to -1.4 kcal/mol for BF3. The value of the maximum of the electrostatic potential correlates poorly with Eint, attributed in part to monomer distortions upon complexation

In Situ and Ex Situ Hydrogenation Studies of Zintl Phases Containing Tetrelides or Gallium

Die Hydrierung von Zintl-Phasen führt zur Bildung von Einlagerungshydriden, die ausschließlich von Kationen koordiniert sind, zu polyanionischen Hydriden, bei denen Wasserstoff kovalent an das stärker elektronegative Element bindet, oder zu einer Kombination von beiden Motiven. Es wurde eine Reihe neuer Verbindungen dargestellt und mittels Laborröntgen-, Synchrotron- und Neutronenpulverbeugung strukturell charakterisiert. Die meisten Beispiele werden durch die Hydrierung von Zintl-Phasen im CrB- oder FeB-Strukturtyp erhalten. Die beiden Typen sind strukturell eng verwandt. Sie sind durch das Auftreten von polyanionischen Zickzackketten gekennzeichnet. Die Einlagerungshydride LnTtH (Ln = La, Nd, Tt = Si, Ge, Sn) sind Oxidationsprodukte der formal metallischen Zintl-Phasen LnTt = Ln3+ Tt2- e- . Wasserstoff besetzt dabei Ln-Tetraederlücken. Die Produkte treten als gefüllter FeB- (P -Phase, LaGeH-Strukturtyp) oder als gefüllter CrB-Strukturtyp (C -Phase, NiZrH-Strukturtyp) auf. Die Hydrierung der elektronenpräzisen Zintl-Phasen AeTt (Ae = Sr, Ba, Tt = Ge, Sn, CrB-Strukturtyp) führt zu wasserstoffarmen (AeTtHy , y < 1) und wasserstoffreichen (AeTtHy , 1 < y ≤ 2) Phasen. Erstere weisen partiell gefüllte Ae4-Lücken auf. In Phasen mit kleinem y (< 0.4) wird der Wasserstoff statistisch über die Lücken verteilt (α-Phasen). Etwas höhere Gehalte führen zu partieller (β-SrGeHy , 0.47 < y < 0.75) oder vollständiger (β-BaGeH0.5 ) Ordnung. Die wasserstoffreichen Phasen AeTtHy , 1 < y ≤ 2 (γ-Phasen), zeigen sowohl die Strukturmotive von Einlagerungs- als auch von polyanionischen Hydriden. SrSiH1.6 und BaSiH1.9 als literaturbekannte Verbindungen wurden das erste mal strukturell charakterisiert. Die homologe Reihe konnte um SrGeH1.2 , BaGeH1.6 und BaSnH1.3 erweitert werden. Die Ae4 -Tetraeder sind in diesen Phasen vollständig mit Hydridionen besetzt. Zusätzlicher Wasserstoff bindet kovalent an die Polyanionen. Außerdem verknüpfen sich die Zickzackketten z. T. senkrecht zur Kettenrichtung. Es wurden insgesamt drei Strukturtypen differenziert, die alle strukturell eng verwandt sind. Das führt zu Problemen bei der Strukturbestimmung aus Pulverdaten. Der kovalente Charakter der Bindung wurde durch Festkörperkernresonanzspektroskopie und Dichtefunktionaltheorierechnungen charakterisiert. Typische Tetrel-Wasserstoff-Bindungslängen sind 155(2) pm (Si-H), 163(2) pm (Ge-H) und 186(1) pm (Sn-H). In situ -Neutron, Röntgen- und Synchrotronpulverbeugung wurden angewandt um Reaktionsabläufe aufzuklären. Beim Heizen unter Wasserstoffdruck treten im AeTt-H2 -System (Ae = Sr, Ba, Tt = Ge, Sn) verschiedene reversible Reaktionen zwischen den γ-, β- und α-Phasen auf, bevor ein irreversibler Zersetzungsschritt in die binären Hydride AeH2 und die Tt-reichen Zintl-Phasen AeTt2 beobachtet wird. Ein In situ Beugungsexperiment der Reaktion von NdGa mit Wasserstoff zeigt direkt die Bildung von NdGaH1+x (isostrukturell zu γ-AeTtHy ), das eine Zusammensetzung von mindestens x = 0.17 bis 0.80 aufweist. Die Ga-H Abstände sind lang (ca. 200 pm) und darum keine klassischen 2-Elektronen-2-Zentrenbindungen. In situ Beugung an den Reaktionen von KSi und CsSi mit Wasserstoff konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Hydride KSiH3 und CsSiH3 in einem Schritt gebildet werden. Diese Phasen weisen SiH3--Anionien auf, die isoelektronisch zu PH3 sind. Weiteres Heizen unter Wasserstoffdruck führt zur Zersetzung in KH und K8Si46 oder zur Rückbildung von CsSi. Außerdem wurde eine Reihe weiterer Verbindungen auf die Reaktivität gegenüber Wasserstoff untersucht. Die Phasen AeTt2 , AGe und ASixGe1-x (A = K, Rb, Cs) bilden keine Hydride unter den untersuchten Bedingungen (mindestens 5 MPa H2, 700 K). Die Gallide CaGa, Sr8Ga7 und Ba8Ga7 weisen Reaktivität gegenüber Wasserstoff auf. Diese Beispiele zersetzen sich in binäres Hydrid und die galliumreichen Phasen Ca3Ga8, SrGa4 und BaGa4 . In situ Laborröntgenbeugung der Reaktion von CaGa mit Wasserstoff führt zur Bildung einer neuen, kristallinen Phase. Bildung und Zersetzung laufen in einem sehr schmalen Temperaturfenster ab. Die neue Phase konnte noch nicht charakterisiert werden.The hydrogenation of Zintl phases leads to interstitial hydrides that are coordinated exclusively by cations, polyanionic hydrides that exhibit a covalent bond to the more electronegative element, or a combination of both motifs. A series of new compounds is prepared and structurally characterised by laboratory X-ray, synchrotron and neutron powder diffraction. Most examples can be derived via hydrogenation of CrB- or FeB-type Zintl phases. These structure types are closely related and characterised by polyanionic zigzag chains. The interstitial hydrides LnTtH (Ln = La, Nd, Tt = Si, Ge, Sn) are oxidation products of the formally metallic Zintl phases LnTt = Ln3+ Tt2- e- . Hydrogen occupies tetrahedral Ln4-voids. The products occur as a filled FeB-type phase (P-phase, LaGeH-structure type) or a filled CrB-type phase (C-phase, ZrNiH-structure type). The hydrogenation of electron-precise Zintl phases AeTt (Ae = Sr, Ba, Tt = Ge, Sn, CrB-structure type) leads to hydrogen-poor (AeTtHy , y < 1) and hydrogen-rich phases (AeTtHy , 1 < y ≤ 2). The first show partially hydrogen-filled Ae4-voids. For low contents y < 0.4, hydrogen is statistically distributed over the voids (α-phases). Slightly increased hydrogen contents lead to partial (β-SrGeHy , 0.47 ≤ y ≤ 0.75) or full ordering (β-BaGeH0.5 ). The hydrogen-rich phases AeTtHy, 1 < y ≤ 2 (γ-phases), combine interstitial and polyanionic hydride motifs. The literature-known phases SrSiH1.6 and BaSiH1.9 could be structurally characterised for the first time. The homologue series was extended to SrGeH1.2, BaGeH1.6 and BaSnH1.3 . Tetrahedral Ae4-voids are totally filled with hydride anions. The additional hydrogen binds to the polyanions. Furthermore, some of the zigzag chains are interconnected perpendicular to the chain direction. Three different structure types exhibiting a close structural relationship were identified. This leads to difficulties in structure determination from powder diffraction. The covalent character of the bond is characterised by solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance and density functional theory calculations. Typical tetrel-hydrogen bond lengths are 155(2) pm (Si-H), 163(2) pm (Ge-H) and 186(1) pm (Sn-H). In situ neutron, X-ray and synchrotron powder diffraction were used to elucidate reaction schemes. The AeTt-H2 systems (Ae = Sr, Ba, Tt = Ge, Sn) show several reversible reaction steps between γ-, β- and α-phases upon heating under hydrogen pressure. Finally, an irreversible decomposition into the binary hydrides AeH2 and Tt-rich Zintl phases AeTt2 occurs. In situ diffraction of the reaction of NdGa with hydrogen leads directly to NdGaH1+x (isostructural to γ-AeTtHy ) which shows a large compositional range from at least x = 0.17 to 0.80. Ga-H distances are long (about 200 pm) and, thus, not classical 2-electron-2-center bonds. In situ diffraction of the reactions of KSi and CsSi with hydrogen show a one step formation of the corresponding hydrides KSiH3 and CsSiH3 . They exhibit SiH3--anions which are isoelectronic to PH3 . Further heating under hydrogen pressure leads to decomposition into KH and K8Si46 or reformation of CsSi, respectively. Finally, further compounds were tested for reactivity towards hydrogen. The phases AeTt2 (Ae = Ca, Sr, Ba, Tt = Si, Ge), AGe and ASixGe1-x (A = K, Rb, Cs) do not form corresponding hydrides under the investigated conditions (at least 5 MPa H2, 700 K). The gallides CaGa, Sr8Ga7 and Ba8Ga7 show reactivity towards hydrogen. They decompose into binary hydride and the gallium-rich phases Ca3 Ga8 , SrGa4 or BaGa4. Furthermore, laboratory in situ diffraction of the reaction of CaGa with hydrogen indicates the formation of a new, crystalline phase. Formation and decomposition occur in a relative small temperature window. The new phase could not be characterised, yet

In Situ and Ex Situ Hydrogenation Studies of Zintl Phases Containing Tetrelides or Gallium

Die Hydrierung von Zintl-Phasen führt zur Bildung von Einlagerungshydriden, die ausschließlich von Kationen koordiniert sind, zu polyanionischen Hydriden, bei denen Wasserstoff kovalent an das stärker elektronegative Element bindet, oder zu einer Kombination von beiden Motiven. Es wurde eine Reihe neuer Verbindungen dargestellt und mittels Laborröntgen-, Synchrotron- und Neutronenpulverbeugung strukturell charakterisiert. Die meisten Beispiele werden durch die Hydrierung von Zintl-Phasen im CrB- oder FeB-Strukturtyp erhalten. Die beiden Typen sind strukturell eng verwandt. Sie sind durch das Auftreten von polyanionischen Zickzackketten gekennzeichnet. Die Einlagerungshydride LnTtH (Ln = La, Nd, Tt = Si, Ge, Sn) sind Oxidationsprodukte der formal metallischen Zintl-Phasen LnTt = Ln3+ Tt2- e- . Wasserstoff besetzt dabei Ln-Tetraederlücken. Die Produkte treten als gefüllter FeB- (P -Phase, LaGeH-Strukturtyp) oder als gefüllter CrB-Strukturtyp (C -Phase, NiZrH-Strukturtyp) auf. Die Hydrierung der elektronenpräzisen Zintl-Phasen AeTt (Ae = Sr, Ba, Tt = Ge, Sn, CrB-Strukturtyp) führt zu wasserstoffarmen (AeTtHy , y < 1) und wasserstoffreichen (AeTtHy , 1 < y ≤ 2) Phasen. Erstere weisen partiell gefüllte Ae4-Lücken auf. In Phasen mit kleinem y (< 0.4) wird der Wasserstoff statistisch über die Lücken verteilt (α-Phasen). Etwas höhere Gehalte führen zu partieller (β-SrGeHy , 0.47 < y < 0.75) oder vollständiger (β-BaGeH0.5 ) Ordnung. Die wasserstoffreichen Phasen AeTtHy , 1 < y ≤ 2 (γ-Phasen), zeigen sowohl die Strukturmotive von Einlagerungs- als auch von polyanionischen Hydriden. SrSiH1.6 und BaSiH1.9 als literaturbekannte Verbindungen wurden das erste mal strukturell charakterisiert. Die homologe Reihe konnte um SrGeH1.2 , BaGeH1.6 und BaSnH1.3 erweitert werden. Die Ae4 -Tetraeder sind in diesen Phasen vollständig mit Hydridionen besetzt. Zusätzlicher Wasserstoff bindet kovalent an die Polyanionen. Außerdem verknüpfen sich die Zickzackketten z. T. senkrecht zur Kettenrichtung. Es wurden insgesamt drei Strukturtypen differenziert, die alle strukturell eng verwandt sind. Das führt zu Problemen bei der Strukturbestimmung aus Pulverdaten. Der kovalente Charakter der Bindung wurde durch Festkörperkernresonanzspektroskopie und Dichtefunktionaltheorierechnungen charakterisiert. Typische Tetrel-Wasserstoff-Bindungslängen sind 155(2) pm (Si-H), 163(2) pm (Ge-H) und 186(1) pm (Sn-H). In situ -Neutron, Röntgen- und Synchrotronpulverbeugung wurden angewandt um Reaktionsabläufe aufzuklären. Beim Heizen unter Wasserstoffdruck treten im AeTt-H2 -System (Ae = Sr, Ba, Tt = Ge, Sn) verschiedene reversible Reaktionen zwischen den γ-, β- und α-Phasen auf, bevor ein irreversibler Zersetzungsschritt in die binären Hydride AeH2 und die Tt-reichen Zintl-Phasen AeTt2 beobachtet wird. Ein In situ Beugungsexperiment der Reaktion von NdGa mit Wasserstoff zeigt direkt die Bildung von NdGaH1+x (isostrukturell zu γ-AeTtHy ), das eine Zusammensetzung von mindestens x = 0.17 bis 0.80 aufweist. Die Ga-H Abstände sind lang (ca. 200 pm) und darum keine klassischen 2-Elektronen-2-Zentrenbindungen. In situ Beugung an den Reaktionen von KSi und CsSi mit Wasserstoff konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Hydride KSiH3 und CsSiH3 in einem Schritt gebildet werden. Diese Phasen weisen SiH3--Anionien auf, die isoelektronisch zu PH3 sind. Weiteres Heizen unter Wasserstoffdruck führt zur Zersetzung in KH und K8Si46 oder zur Rückbildung von CsSi. Außerdem wurde eine Reihe weiterer Verbindungen auf die Reaktivität gegenüber Wasserstoff untersucht. Die Phasen AeTt2 , AGe und ASixGe1-x (A = K, Rb, Cs) bilden keine Hydride unter den untersuchten Bedingungen (mindestens 5 MPa H2, 700 K). Die Gallide CaGa, Sr8Ga7 und Ba8Ga7 weisen Reaktivität gegenüber Wasserstoff auf. Diese Beispiele zersetzen sich in binäres Hydrid und die galliumreichen Phasen Ca3Ga8, SrGa4 und BaGa4 . In situ Laborröntgenbeugung der Reaktion von CaGa mit Wasserstoff führt zur Bildung einer neuen, kristallinen Phase. Bildung und Zersetzung laufen in einem sehr schmalen Temperaturfenster ab. Die neue Phase konnte noch nicht charakterisiert werden.The hydrogenation of Zintl phases leads to interstitial hydrides that are coordinated exclusively by cations, polyanionic hydrides that exhibit a covalent bond to the more electronegative element, or a combination of both motifs. A series of new compounds is prepared and structurally characterised by laboratory X-ray, synchrotron and neutron powder diffraction. Most examples can be derived via hydrogenation of CrB- or FeB-type Zintl phases. These structure types are closely related and characterised by polyanionic zigzag chains. The interstitial hydrides LnTtH (Ln = La, Nd, Tt = Si, Ge, Sn) are oxidation products of the formally metallic Zintl phases LnTt = Ln3+ Tt2- e- . Hydrogen occupies tetrahedral Ln4-voids. The products occur as a filled FeB-type phase (P-phase, LaGeH-structure type) or a filled CrB-type phase (C-phase, ZrNiH-structure type). The hydrogenation of electron-precise Zintl phases AeTt (Ae = Sr, Ba, Tt = Ge, Sn, CrB-structure type) leads to hydrogen-poor (AeTtHy , y < 1) and hydrogen-rich phases (AeTtHy , 1 < y ≤ 2). The first show partially hydrogen-filled Ae4-voids. For low contents y < 0.4, hydrogen is statistically distributed over the voids (α-phases). Slightly increased hydrogen contents lead to partial (β-SrGeHy , 0.47 ≤ y ≤ 0.75) or full ordering (β-BaGeH0.5 ). The hydrogen-rich phases AeTtHy, 1 < y ≤ 2 (γ-phases), combine interstitial and polyanionic hydride motifs. The literature-known phases SrSiH1.6 and BaSiH1.9 could be structurally characterised for the first time. The homologue series was extended to SrGeH1.2, BaGeH1.6 and BaSnH1.3 . Tetrahedral Ae4-voids are totally filled with hydride anions. The additional hydrogen binds to the polyanions. Furthermore, some of the zigzag chains are interconnected perpendicular to the chain direction. Three different structure types exhibiting a close structural relationship were identified. This leads to difficulties in structure determination from powder diffraction. The covalent character of the bond is characterised by solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance and density functional theory calculations. Typical tetrel-hydrogen bond lengths are 155(2) pm (Si-H), 163(2) pm (Ge-H) and 186(1) pm (Sn-H). In situ neutron, X-ray and synchrotron powder diffraction were used to elucidate reaction schemes. The AeTt-H2 systems (Ae = Sr, Ba, Tt = Ge, Sn) show several reversible reaction steps between γ-, β- and α-phases upon heating under hydrogen pressure. Finally, an irreversible decomposition into the binary hydrides AeH2 and Tt-rich Zintl phases AeTt2 occurs. In situ diffraction of the reaction of NdGa with hydrogen leads directly to NdGaH1+x (isostructural to γ-AeTtHy ) which shows a large compositional range from at least x = 0.17 to 0.80. Ga-H distances are long (about 200 pm) and, thus, not classical 2-electron-2-center bonds. In situ diffraction of the reactions of KSi and CsSi with hydrogen show a one step formation of the corresponding hydrides KSiH3 and CsSiH3 . They exhibit SiH3--anions which are isoelectronic to PH3 . Further heating under hydrogen pressure leads to decomposition into KH and K8Si46 or reformation of CsSi, respectively. Finally, further compounds were tested for reactivity towards hydrogen. The phases AeTt2 (Ae = Ca, Sr, Ba, Tt = Si, Ge), AGe and ASixGe1-x (A = K, Rb, Cs) do not form corresponding hydrides under the investigated conditions (at least 5 MPa H2, 700 K). The gallides CaGa, Sr8Ga7 and Ba8Ga7 show reactivity towards hydrogen. They decompose into binary hydride and the gallium-rich phases Ca3 Ga8 , SrGa4 or BaGa4. Furthermore, laboratory in situ diffraction of the reaction of CaGa with hydrogen indicates the formation of a new, crystalline phase. Formation and decomposition occur in a relative small temperature window. The new phase could not be characterised, yet

Noncovalent Bonds through Sigma and Pi-Hole Located on the Same Molecule. Guiding Principles and Comparisons

Over the last years, scientific interest in noncovalent interactions based on the presence of electron-depleted regions called σ-holes or π-holes has markedly accelerated. Their high directionality and strength, comparable to hydrogen bonds, has been documented in many fields of modern chemistry. The current review gathers and digests recent results concerning these bonds, with a focus on those systems where both σ and π-holes are present on the same molecule. The underlying principles guiding the bonding in both sorts of interactions are discussed, and the trends that emerge from recent work offer a guide as to how one might design systems that allow multiple noncovalent bonds to occur simultaneously, or that prefer one bond type over another

Structures of Clusters Surrounding Ions Stabilized by Hydrogen, Halogen, Chalcogen, and Pnicogen Bonds

Four H-binding HCl and HF molecules position themselves at the vertices of a tetrahedron when surrounding a central Cl-. Halogen bonding BrF and ClF form a slightly distorted tetrahedron, a tendency that is amplified for ClCN which forms a trigonal pyramid. Chalcogen bonding SF2, SeF2, SeFMe, and SeCSe occupy one hemisphere of the central ion, leaving the other hemisphere empty. This pattern is repeated for pnicogen bonding PF3, SeF3 and AsCF. The clustering of solvent molecules on one side of the Cl- is attributed to weak attractive interactions between them, including chalcogen, pnicogen, halogen, and hydrogen bonds. Binding energies of four solvent molecules around a central Na+ are considerably reduced relative to chloride, and the geometries are different, with no empty hemisphere. The driving force maximizes the number of electronegative (F or O) atoms close to the Na+, and the presence of noncovalent bonds between solvent molecules