Deep Learning in Cardiology

The medical field is creating large amount of data that physicians are unable to decipher and use efficiently. Moreover, rule-based expert systems are inefficient in solving complicated medical tasks or for creating insights using big data. Deep learning has emerged as a more accurate and effective technology in a wide range of medical problems such as diagnosis, prediction and intervention. Deep learning is a representation learning method that consists of layers that transform the data non-linearly, thus, revealing hierarchical relationships and structures. In this review we survey deep learning application papers that use structured data, signal and imaging modalities from cardiology. We discuss the advantages and limitations of applying deep learning in cardiology that also apply in medicine in general, while proposing certain directions as the most viable for clinical use.Comment: 27 pages, 2 figures, 10 table

Electrocardiogram pattern recognition and analysis based on artificial neural networks and support vector machines: a review.

Computer systems for Electrocardiogram (ECG) analysis support the clinician in tedious tasks (e.g., Holter ECG monitored in Intensive Care Units) or in prompt detection of dangerous events (e.g., ventricular fibrillation). Together with clinical applications (arrhythmia detection and heart rate variability analysis), ECG is currently being investigated in biometrics (human identification), an emerging area receiving increasing attention. Methodologies for clinical applications can have both differences and similarities with respect to biometrics. This paper reviews methods of ECG processing from a pattern recognition perspective. In particular, we focus on features commonly used for heartbeat classification. Considering the vast literature in the field and the limited space of this review, we dedicated a detailed discussion only to a few classifiers (Artificial Neural Networks and Support Vector Machines) because of their popularity; however, other techniques such as Hidden Markov Models and Kalman Filtering will be also mentioned

Heart Diseases Diagnosis Using Artificial Neural Networks

Information technology has virtually altered every aspect of human life in the present era. The application of informatics in the health sector is rapidly gaining prominence and the benefits of this innovative paradigm are being realized across the globe. This evolution produced large number of patients’ data that can be employed by computer technologies and machine learning techniques, and turned into useful information and knowledge. This data can be used to develop expert systems to help in diagnosing some life-threating diseases such as heart diseases, with less cost, processing time and improved diagnosis accuracy. Even though, modern medicine is generating huge amount of data every day, little has been done to use this available data to solve challenges faced in the successful diagnosis of heart diseases. Highlighting the need for more research into the usage of robust data mining techniques to help health care professionals in the diagnosis of heart diseases and other debilitating disease conditions. Based on the foregoing, this thesis aims to develop a health informatics system for the classification of heart diseases using data mining techniques focusing on Radial Basis functions and emerging Neural Networks approach. The presented research involves three development stages; firstly, the development of a preliminary classification system for Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) using Radial Basis Function (RBF) neural networks. The research then deploys the deep learning approach to detect three different types of heart diseases i.e. Sleep Apnea, Arrhythmias and CAD by designing two novel classification systems; the first adopt a novel deep neural network method (with Rectified Linear unit activation) design as the second approach in this thesis and the other implements a novel multilayer kernel machine to mimic the behaviour of deep learning as the third approach. Additionally, this thesis uses a dataset obtained from patients, and employs normalization and feature extraction means to explore it in a unique way that facilitates its usage for training and validating different classification methods. This unique dataset is useful to researchers and practitioners working in heart disease treatment and diagnosis. The findings from the study reveal that the proposed models have high classification performance that is comparable, or perhaps exceed in some cases, the existing automated and manual methods of heart disease diagnosis. Besides, the proposed deep-learning models provide better performance when applied on large data sets (e.g., in the case of Sleep Apnea), with reasonable performance with smaller data sets. The proposed system for clinical diagnoses of heart diseases, contributes to the accurate detection of such disease, and could serve as an important tool in the area of clinic support system. The outcome of this study in form of implementation tool can be used by cardiologists to help them make more consistent diagnosis of heart diseases

An Empiric Analysis of Wavelet-Based Feature Extraction on Deep Learning and Machine Learning Algorithms for Arrhythmia Classification

The aberration in human electrocardiogram (ECG) affects cardiovascular events that may lead to arrhythmias. Many automation systems for ECG classification exist, but the ambiguity to wisely employ the in-built feature extraction or expert based manual feature extraction before classification still needs recognition. The proposed work compares and presents the enactment of using machine learning and deep learning classification on time series sequences. The two classifiers, namely the Support Vector Machine (SVM) and the Bi-directional Long Short-Term Memory (BiLSTM) network, are separately trained by direct ECG samples and extracted feature vectors using multiresolution analysis of Maximal Overlap Discrete Wavelet Transform (MODWT). Single beat segmentation with R-peaks and QRS detection is also involved with 6 morphological and 12 statistical feature extraction. The two benchmark datasets, multi-class, and binary class, are acquired from the PhysioNet database. For the binary dataset, BiLSTM with direct samples and with feature extraction gives 58.1% and 80.7% testing accuracy, respectively, whereas SVM outperforms with 99.88% accuracy. For the multi-class dataset, BiLSTM classification accuracy with the direct sample and the extracted feature is 49.6% and 95.4%, whereas SVM shows 99.44%. The efficient statistical workout depicts that the extracted feature-based selection of data can deliver distinguished outcomes compared with raw ECG data or in-built automatic feature extraction. The machine learning classifiers like SVM with knowledge-based feature extraction can equally or better perform than Bi-LSTM network for certain datasets

Multimodal Signal Processing for Diagnosis of Cardiorespiratory Disorders

This thesis addresses the use of multimodal signal processing to develop algorithms for the automated processing of two cardiorespiratory disorders. The aim of the first application of this thesis was to reduce false alarm rate in an intensive care unit. The goal was to detect five critical arrhythmias using processing of multimodal signals including photoplethysmography, arterial blood pressure, Lead II and augmented right arm electrocardiogram (ECG). A hierarchical approach was used to process the signals as well as a custom signal processing technique for each arrhythmia type. Sleep disorders are a prevalent health issue, currently costly and inconvenient to diagnose, as they normally require an overnight hospital stay by the patient. In the second application of this project, we designed automated signal processing algorithms for the diagnosis of sleep apnoea with a main focus on the ECG signal processing. We estimated the ECG-derived respiratory (EDR) signal using different methods: QRS-complex area, principal component analysis (PCA) and kernel PCA. We proposed two algorithms (segmented PCA and approximated PCA) for EDR estimation to enable applying the PCA method to overnight recordings and rectify the computational issues and memory requirement. We compared the EDR information against the chest respiratory effort signals. The performance was evaluated using three automated machine learning algorithms of linear discriminant analysis (LDA), extreme learning machine (ELM) and support vector machine (SVM) on two databases: the MIT PhysioNet database and the St. Vincent’s database. The results showed that the QRS area method for EDR estimation combined with the LDA classifier was the highest performing method and the EDR signals contain respiratory information useful for discriminating sleep apnoea. As a final step, heart rate variability (HRV) and cardiopulmonary coupling (CPC) features were extracted and combined with the EDR features and temporal optimisation techniques were applied. The cross-validation results of the minute-by-minute apnoea classification achieved an accuracy of 89%, a sensitivity of 90%, a specificity of 88%, and an AUC of 0.95 which is comparable to the best results reported in the literature

Optimal Multi-Stage Arrhythmia Classification Approach

Arrhythmia constitutes a problem with the rate or rhythm of the heartbeat, and an early diagnosis is essential for the timely inception of successful treatment. We have jointly optimized the entire multi-stage arrhythmia classification scheme based on 12-lead surface ECGs that attains the accuracy performance level of professional cardiologists. The new approach is comprised of a three-step noise reduction stage, a novel feature extraction method and an optimal classification model with finely tuned hyperparameters. We carried out an exhaustive study comparing thousands of competing classification algorithms that were trained on our proprietary, large and expertly labeled dataset consisting of 12-lead ECGs from 40,258 patients with four arrhythmia classes: atrial fibrillation, general supraventricular tachycardia, sinus bradycardia and sinus rhythm including sinus irregularity rhythm. Our results show that the optimal approach consisted of Low Band Pass filter, Robust LOESS, Non Local Means smoothing, a proprietary feature extraction method based on percentiles of the empirical distribution of ratios of interval lengths and magnitudes of peaks and valleys, and Extreme Gradient Boosting Tree classifier, achieved an F1-Score of 0.988 on patients without additional cardiac conditions. The same noise reduction and feature extraction methods combined with Gradient Boosting Tree classifier achieved an F1-Score of 0.97 on patients with additional cardiac conditions. Our method achieved the highest classification accuracy (average 10-fold cross-validation F1-Score of 0.992) using an external validation data, MIT-BIH arrhythmia database. The proposed optimal multi-stage arrhythmia classification approach can dramatically benefit automatic ECG data analysis by providing cardiologist level accuracy and robust compatibility with various ECG data sources

Signal processing for automatic heartbeat classification and patient adaptation in the electrocardiogram

Las enfermedades cardiovasculares son en la actualidad la mayor causa de muerte individual en los países desarrollados, por lo tanto cualquier avance en las metodologías para el diagnóstico podrían mejorar la salud de muchas personas. Dentro de las enfermedades cardiovasculares, la muerte súbita cardíaca es una de las causas de muerte más importantes, por su número y por el impacto social que provoca. Sin lugar a duda se trata uno de los grandes desafíos de la cardiología moderna. Hay evidencias para relacionar las arritmias con la muerte súbita cardíaca. Por otro lado, la clasificación de latidos en el electrocardiograma (ECG) es un análisis previo para el estudio de las arritmias. El análisis del ECG proporciona una técnica no invasiva para el estudio de la actividad del corazón en sus distintas condiciones. Particularmente los algoritmos automáticos de clasificación se focalizan en el análisis del ritmo y la morfología del ECG, y específicamente en las variaciones respecto a la normalidad. Justamente, las variaciones en el ritmo, regularidad, lugar de origen y forma de conducción de los impulsos cardíacos, se denominan arritmias. Mientras que algunas arritmias representan una amenaza inminente (Ej. fibrilación ventricular), existen otras más sutiles que pueden ser una amenaza a largo plazo sin el tratamiento adecuado. Es en estos últimos casos, que registros ECG de larga duración requieren una inspección cuidadosa, donde los algoritmos automáticos de clasificación representan una ayuda significativa en el diagnóstico. En la última década se han desarrollado algunos algoritmos de clasificación de ECG, pero solo unos pocos tienen metodologías y resultados comparables, a pesar de las recomendaciones de la AAMI para facilitar la resolución de estos problemas. De dichos métodos, algunos funcionan de manera completamente automática, mientras que otros pueden aprovechar la asistencia de un experto para mejorar su desempeño. La base de datos utilizada en todos estos trabajos ha sido la MIT-BIH de arritmias. En cuanto a las características utilizadas, los intervalos RR fueron usados por casi todos los grupos. También se utilizaron muestras del complejo QRS diezmado, o transformado mediante polinomios de Hermite, transformada de Fourier o la descomposición wavelet. Otros grupos usaron características que integran la información presente en ambas derivaciones, como el máximo del vectocardiograma del complejo QRS, o el ángulo formado en dicho punto. El objetivo de esta tesis ha sido estudiar algunas metodologías para la clasificación de latidos en el ECG. En primer lugar se estudiaron metodologías automáticas, con capacidad para contemplar el análisis de un número arbitrario de derivaciones. Luego se estudió la adaptación al paciente y la posibilidad de incorporar la asistencia de un experto para mejorar el rendimiento del clasificador automático. En principio se desarrolló y validó un clasificador de latidos sencillo, que utiliza características seleccionadas en base a una buena capacidad de generalización. Se han considerado características de la serie de intervalos RR (distancia entre dos latidos consecutivos), como también otras calculadas a partir de ambas derivaciones de la señal de ECG, y escalas de su transformada wavelet. Tanto el desempeño en la clasificación como la capacidad de generalización han sido evaluados en bases de datos públicas: la MIT-BIH de arritmias, la MIT-BIH de arritmias supraventriculares y la del Instituto de Técnicas Cardiológicas de San Petersburgo (INCART). Se han seguido las recomendaciones de la Asociación para el Avance de la Instrumentación Médica (AAMI) tanto para el etiquetado de clases como para la presentación de los resultados. Para la búsqueda de características se adoptó un algoritmo de búsqueda secuencial flotante, utilizando diferentes criterios de búsqueda, para luego elegir el modelo con mejor rendimiento y capacidad de generalización en los sets de entrenamiento y validación. El mejor modelo encontrado incluye 8 características y ha sido entrenado y evaluado en particiones disjuntas de la MIT-BIH de arritmias. Todas las carácterísticas del modelo corresponden a mediciones de intervalos temporales. Esto puede explicarse debido a que los registros utilizados en los experimentos no siempre contienen las mismas derivaciones, y por lo tanto la capacidad de clasificación de aquellas características basadas en amplitudes se ve seriamente disminuida. Las primeras 4 características del modelo están claramente relacionadas a la evolución del ritmo cardíaco, mientras que las otras cuatro pueden interpretarse como mediciones alternativas de la anchura del complejo QRS, y por lo tanto morfológicas. Como resultado, el modelo obtenido tiene la ventaja evidente de un menor tamaño, lo que redunda tanto en un ahorro computacional como en una mejor estimación de los parámetros del modelo durante el entrenamiento. Como ventaja adicional, este modelo depende exclusivamente de la detección de cada latido, haciendo este clasificador especialmente útil en aquellos casos donde la delineación de las ondas del ECG no puede realizarse de manera confiable. Los resultados obtenidos en el set de evaluación han sido: exactitud global (A) de 93%; para latidos normales: sensibilidad (S) 95% valor predictivo positivo (P^{+}) 98%; para latidos supraventriculares, S 77%, P^{+} 39%; y para latidos ventriculares S 81%, P^{+} 87%. Para comprobar la capacidad de generalización, se evaluó el rendimiento en la INCART obteniéndose resultados comparables a los del set de evaluación. El modelo de clasificación obtenido utiliza menos características, y adicionalmente presentó mejor rendimiento y capacidad de generalización que otros representativos del estado del arte. Luego se han estudiado dos mejoras para el clasificador desarrollado en el párrafo anterior. La primera fue adaptarlo a registros ECG de un número arbitrario de derivaciones, o extensión multiderivacional. En la segunda mejora se buscó cambiar el clasificador lineal por un perceptrón multicapa no lineal (MLP). Para la extensión multiderivacional se estudió si conlleva alguna mejora incluir información del ECG multiderivacional en el modelo previamente validado. Dicho modelo incluye características calculadas de la serie de intervalos RR y descriptores morfológicos calculados en la transformada wavelet de cada derivación. Los experimentos se han realizado en la INCART, disponible en Physionet, mientras que la generalización se corroboró en otras bases de datos públicas y privadas. En todas las bases de datos se siguieron las recomendaciones de la AAMI para el etiquetado de clases y presentación de resultados. Se estudiaron varias estrategias para incorporar la información adicional presente en registros de 12 derivaciones. La mejor estrategia consistió en realizar el análisis de componentes principales a la transformada wavelet del ECG. El rendimiento obtenido con dicha estrategia fue: para latidos normales: S98%, P^{+}93%; para latidos supraventriculares, S86%, P^{+}91%; y para latidos ventriculares S90%, P^{+}90%. La capacidad de generalización de esta estrategia se comprobó tras evaluarla en otras bases de datos, con diferentes cantidades de derivaciones, obteniendo resultados comparables. En conclusión, se mejoró el rendimiento del clasificador de referencia tras incluir la información disponible en todas las derivaciones disponibles. La mejora del clasificador lineal por medio de un MLP se realizó siguiendo una metodología similar a la descrita más arriba. El rendimiento obtenido fue: A 89%; para latidos normales: S90%, P^{+}99% para latidos supraventriculares, S83%, P^{+}34%; para latidos ventriculares S87%, P^{+}76%. Finalmente estudiamos un algoritmo de clasificación basado en las metodologías descritas en los anteriores párrafos, pero con la capacidad de mejorar su rendimiento mediante la ayuda de un experto. Se presentó un algoritmo de clasificación de latidos en el ECG adaptable al paciente, basado en el clasificador automático previamente desarrollado y un algoritmo de clustering. Tanto el clasificador automático, como el algoritmo de clustering utilizan características calculadas de la serie de intervalos RR y descriptores de morfología calculados de la transformada wavelet. Integrando las decisiones de ambos clasificadores, este algoritmo puede desempeñarse automáticamente o con varios grados de asistencia. El algoritmo ha sido minuciosamente evaluado en varias bases de datos para facilitar la comparación. Aún en el modo completamente automático, el algoritmo mejora el rendimiento del clasificador automático original; y con menos de 2 latidos anotados manualmente (MAHB) por registro, el algoritmo obtuvo una mejora media para todas las bases de datos del 6.9% en A, de 6.5\%S y de 8.9\% en P^{+}. Con una asistencia de solo 12 MAHB por registro resultó en una mejora media de 13.1\%en A, de 13.9\% en S y de 36.1\% en P^{+}. En el modo asistido, el algoritmo obtuvo un rendimiento superior a otros representativos del estado del arte, con menor asistencia por parte del experto. Como conclusiones de la tesis, debemos enfatizar la etapa del diseño y análisis minucioso de las características a utilizar. Esta etapa está íntimamente ligada al conocimiento del problema a resolver. Por otro lado, la selección de un subset de características ha resultado muy ventajosa desde el punto de la eficiencia computacional y la capacidad de generalización del modelo obtenido. En último lugar, la utilización de un clasificador simple o de baja capacidad (por ejemplo funciones discriminantes lineales) asegurará que el modelo de características sea responsable en mayor parte del rendimiento global del sistema. Con respecto a los sets de datos para la realización de los experimentos, es fundamental contar con un elevado numero de sujetos. Es importante incidir en la importancia de contar con muchos sujetos, y no muchos registros de pocos sujetos, dada la gran variabilidad intersujeto observada. De esto se desprende la necesidad de evaluar la capacidad de generalización del sistema a sujetos no contemplados durante el entrenamiento o desarrollo. Por último resaltaremos la complejidad de comparar el rendimiento de clasificadores en problemas mal balanceados, es decir que las clases no se encuentras igualmente representadas. De las alternativas sugeridas en esta tesis probablemente la más recomendable sea la matriz de confusión, ya que brinda una visión completa del rendimiento del clasificador, a expensas de una alta redundancia. Finalmente, luego de realizar comparaciones justas con otros trabajos representativos del estado actual de la técnica, concluimos que los resultados presentados en esta tesis representan una mejora en el campo de la clasificación de latidos automática y adaptada al paciente, en la señal de ECG

ECG analysis and classification using CSVM, MSVM and SIMCA classifiers

Reliable ECG classification can potentially lead to better detection methods and increase accurate diagnosis of arrhythmia, thus improving quality of care. This thesis investigated the use of two novel classification algorithms: CSVM and SIMCA, and assessed their performance in classifying ECG beats. The project aimed to introduce a new way to interactively support patient care in and out of the hospital and develop new classification algorithms for arrhythmia detection and diagnosis. Wave (P-QRS-T) detection was performed using the WFDB Software Package and multiresolution wavelets. Fourier and PCs were selected as time-frequency features in the ECG signal; these provided the input to the classifiers in the form of DFT and PCA coefficients. ECG beat classification was performed using binary SVM. MSVM, CSVM, and SIMCA; these were subsequently used for simultaneously classifying either four or six types of cardiac conditions. Binary SVM classification with 100% accuracy was achieved when applied on feature-reduced ECG signals from well-established databases using PCA. The CSVM algorithm and MSVM were used to classify four ECG beat types: NORMAL, PVC, APC, and FUSION or PFUS; these were from the MIT-BIH arrhythmia database (precordial lead group and limb lead II). Different numbers of Fourier coefficients were considered in order to identify the optimal number of features to be presented to the classifier. SMO was used to compute hyper-plane parameters and threshold values for both MSVM and CSVM during the classifier training phase. The best classification accuracy was achieved using fifty Fourier coefficients. With the new CSVM classifier framework, accuracies of 99%, 100%, 98%, and 99% were obtained using datasets from one, two, three, and four precordial leads, respectively. In addition, using CSVM it was possible to successfully classify four types of ECG beat signals extracted from limb lead simultaneously with 97% accuracy, a significant improvement on the 83% accuracy achieved using the MSVM classification model. In addition, further analysis of the following four beat types was made: NORMAL, PVC, SVPB, and FUSION. These signals were obtained from the European ST-T Database. Accuracies between 86% and 94% were obtained for MSVM and CSVM classification, respectively, using 100 Fourier coefficients for reconstructing individual ECG beats. Further analysis presented an effective ECG arrhythmia classification scheme consisting of PCA as a feature reduction method and a SIMCA classifier to differentiate between either four or six different types of arrhythmia. In separate studies, six and four types of beats (including NORMAL, PVC, APC, RBBB, LBBB, and FUSION beats) with time domain features were extracted from the MIT-BIH arrhythmia database and the St Petersburg INCART 12-lead Arrhythmia Database (incartdb) respectively. Between 10 and 30 PCs, coefficients were selected for reconstructing individual ECG beats in the feature selection phase. The average classification accuracy of the proposed scheme was 98.61% and 97.78 % using the limb lead and precordial lead datasets, respectively. In addition, using MSVM and SIMCA classifiers with four ECG beat types achieved an average classification accuracy of 76.83% and 98.33% respectively. The effectiveness of the proposed algorithms was finally confirmed by successfully classifying both the six beat and four beat types of signal respectively with a high accuracy ratio

Morphological Variability Analysis of Physiologic Waveform for Prediction and Detection of Diseases

For many years it has been known that variability of the morphology of high-resolution (∼30-1000 Hz) physiological time series data provides additional prognostic value over lower resolution (≤ 1Hz) derived averages such as heart rate (HR), breathing rate (BR) and blood pressure (BP). However, the field has remained rather ad hoc, based on hand-crafted features. Using a model-based approach we explore the nature of these features and their sensitivity to variabilities introduced by changes in both the sampling period (HR) and observational reference frame (through breathing). HR and BR are determined as having a statistically significant confounding effect on the morphological variability (MV) evaluated in high-resolution physiological time series data, thus an important gap is identified in previous studies that ignored the effects of HR and BR when measuring MV. We build a best-in-class open-source toolbox for exploring MV that accounts for the confounding factors of HR and BR. We demonstrate the toolbox’s utility in three domains on three different signals: arterial BP in sepsis; photoplethysmogram in coarctation of the aorta; and electrocardiogram (ECG) in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In each of the three case studies, incorporating features that capture MV while controlling for BR and/or HR improved disease classification performance compared to previously established methods that used features from lower resolution time series data. Using the PTSD example, we then introduce a deep learning approach that significantly improves our ability to identify the effects of PTSD on ECG morphology. In particular, we show that pre-training the algorithm on a database of over 70,000 ECGs containing a set of 25 rhythms, allowed us to boost performance from an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) of 0.61 to 0.85. This novel approach to identifying morphology indicates that there is much more to morphological variability during stressful PTSD-related events than the simple periodic modulation of the T-wave amplitude. This research indicates that future work should focus on identifying the etiology of the dynamic features in the ECG that provided such a large boost in performance, since this may reveal novel underlying mechanisms of the influence of PTSD on the myocardium.Ph.D