Winter Home Range and Habitat Use of the Virginia Northern Flying Squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus)

We radio-tracked two male and one female Virginia northern flying squirrels (Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus) in the Allegheny Mountains of West Virginia at Snowshoe Mountain Resort, in winter 2003 and Canaan Valley National Wildlife Refuge in winter 2004, respectively, to document winter home range and habitat use in or near ski areas. Male home range size in the winter was larger than that reported for males during summer and fall, whereas the female home range we observed was smaller than those reported for summer and fall. However, winter habitat use was similar to summer and fall habitat use reported in other studies. Virginia northern flying squirrels foraged and denned in both red spruce (Picea rubens)-dominated forests and northern hardwood forests; however, selection of red spruce-dominated forests and open areas was greater than expected based on availability. Use of northern hardwood forest occurred less than expected based on availability. Male squirrels denned near, and routinely crossed, downhill ski slopes and unimproved roads during foraging bouts, whereas the female approached, but did not cross forest edges onto roads or trails

Genetic Variability, Pathogen Susceptibility, Subspecies Identity and Conservation of the Endangered Northern Flying Squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus) in Virginia

I examined the population genetic structure of three known subspecies of Glaucomys sabrinus from Appalachia, Washington State, and two previously unexamined populations from Mount Rogers National Recreation Area (MRNRA) in Southwestern Virginia. Mean FST (0.107) and an AMOVA (P G. sabrinus subspecies populations in the southern Appalachians are genetically differentiated. Glaucomys sabrinus at MRNRA were less inbred than expected. Gene flow, a consensus tree based on Nei\u27s genetic distance, elevated heterozygosity and morphometric data suggest that the MRNRA G. sabrinus population is an intergrade of the two recognized Appalachian subspecies, G. s. fuscus and G. s. coloratus. I compared inbreeding and the level of parasite infestation in the two MRNRA populations of G. sabrinus and found that Whitetop Mountain (150 ha habitat) was more inbred than the population on Mount Rogers (400 ha habitat, P Strongyloides robustus were greater in the more fragmented Whitetop Mountain population, although the difference was not statistically significant (P= 0.278). A Mantel comparison of genetic diversity and parasite infestation among individuals did show a highly significant negative correlation (P G. sabrinus form a unique insular population with high genetic diversity that is nonetheless susceptible to increased inbreeding, and elevated parasitism caused by fragmentation. MRNRA G. sabrinus should retain endangered species status

Developing a Topographic Model to Predict the Northern Hardwood Forest Type within Carolina Northern Flying Squirrel ( Glaucomys sabrinus coloratus

The northern hardwood forest type is an important habitat component for the endangered Carolina northern flying squirrel (CNFS; Glaucomys sabrinus coloratus) for den sites and corridor habitats between boreo-montane conifer patches foraging areas. Our study related terrain data to presence of northern hardwood forest type in the recovery areas of CNFS in the southern Appalachian Mountains of western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, and southwestern Virginia. We recorded overstory species composition and terrain variables at 338 points, to construct a robust, spatially predictive model. Terrain variables analyzed included elevation, aspect, slope gradient, site curvature, and topographic exposure. We used an information-theoretic approach to assess seven models based on associations noted in existing literature as well as an inclusive global model. Our results indicate that, on a regional scale, elevation, aspect, and topographic exposure index (TEI) are significant predictors of the presence of the northern hardwood forest type in the southern Appalachians. Our elevation + TEI model was the best approximating model (the lowest AICc score) for predicting northern hardwood forest type correctly classifying approximately 78% of our sample points. We then used these data to create region-wide predictive maps of the distribution of the northern hardwood forest type within CNFS recovery areas

Effets de la disponibilité potentielle en nids et en nourriture sur l’abondance du Grand Polatouche (Glaucomys sabrinus) en forêt boréale mixte de l’est du Canada

Le Grand Polatouche (Glaucomys sabrinus) est un rongeur arboricole et cavicole associé aux gros arbres et aux vieilles forêts non perturbées. Cette espèce est considérée non seulement comme une espèce clé des forêts de conifères, mais également comme une espèce indicatrice d’aménagement durable en Amérique du Nord. Les résultats d’une étude de 2008 ont cependant montré que la disponibilité en cavités ne semblait pas limiter la présence de l’espèce en forêt boréale québécoise. Nous avons donc réalisé une expérience dans laquelle nous avons ajouté des cavités artificielles (nichoirs) sur la moitié des sites étudiés en 2008 (n=56), afin de déterminer par piégeage, 4 ans plus tard, si la disponibilité de cette ressource influence l’abondance locale de l’espèce ainsi que la dynamique de ses populations. Nous supposons que 1) l’abondance initiale augmente selon la disponibilité potentielle en nourriture (mesurée par la surface terrière de conifères) et en cavités (mesurée par la surface terrière de chicots) ; 2) l’ajout de nichoirs aura une influence positive sur le taux de recrutement et la survie apparente des polatouches et que 3) l’effet de l’ajout de nichoirs dépendra de la disponibilité naturelle en nourriture et en cavités sur chaque site. En prenant en compte l’effet de l’année, des précipitations et de la hauteur des pièges sur la probabilité de détection, nous avons analysé les données selon des modèles N-mélangés (N-mixture model). L’abondance initiale est influencée par la disponibilité en nourriture mais pas par la disponibilité en cavités. De plus, ni l’ajout de nichoirs, ni les caractéristiques des sites n’expliquent l’abondance des populations de polatouches après l’ajout de nichoirs, bien que tous les sites non occupés en 2008 sauf un aient été colonisés en 2012. Nos résultats confirment l’aspect opportuniste de l’espèce et suggèrent que le Grand polatouche n’est peut être pas une bonne espèce indicatrice de vieilles forêts dans nos forêts boréales mixtes

Virginia’s Land Mammals: Past and Present, With Some Thoughts About Their Possible Future

Mammals encountered today in Virginia’s forests and fields include native and nonnative species, feral populations, and free-ranging pets. We examine factors that have influenced Virginia’s terrestrial mammal fauna since the arrival of European colonists in the 1600s and some of the factors that are shaping the fauna today. We look in depth at changes since Handley and Patton’s (1947) first complete monograph on Virginia mammals and augment Linzey’s (1998) book, The Mammals of Virginia. We include current nomenclature, baseline information, and references to comprehensive literature. We discuss some of the current and developing anthropogenic factors that have impacted, or that likely will impact, our native land mammals as well as factors that bode well for many species, especially in areas of conservation of habitat

Using Environmental and Site-specific Variables to Model Current and Future Distribution of Red Spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.) Forest Habitat in West Virginia

Red spruce forests are a remnant ecosystem from the interglacial period of the Wisconsin glaciation and today are considered one of the most threatened forest ecosystems in the eastern United States. The extent of red spruce forests in West Virginia prior to exploitative logging which occurred from 1880--1920 is estimated at 190,000 ha, but today, these forests are estimated to occupy no more than 24,000 ha, resulting primarily from intense anthropogenic disturbances. With the extensive loss of presettlement habitat for red spruce in West Virginia, this species is a high priority for restoration, as these forests offer the unique habitat for the endangered Cheat Mountain salamander (Plethodon nettingi Green), and provide optimal habitat for the recently delisted Virginia northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus Miller).;In the first portion of the study, a novel modeling technique, Maximum Entropy (Maxent) was used to model current red spruce forest habitat in West Virginia using 168 red spruce presence localities and 32 environmental and site-specific variables. For this analysis 283,000 ha were identified in 18 counties possessing suitable red spruce habitat in West Virginia. Variables considered important for all replicate model runs were maximum temperature of the warmest month (40.6%), minimum temperature of the coldest month (13.7%), slope percent (6.9%), mean temperature of the coldest quarter (6.5%), mean annual temperature (4.6%), and soil type (4.0%). The environmental and site-specific variables which contributed the most to overall model performance were also assessed further to examine the value or range of values in which red spruce habitat was likely to occur. For maximum temperature of the warmest month the threshold value identified was 25°C, where areas which had maximum summer temperature less than this value resulted in an increased probability of possessing suitable red spruce habitat. Additionally, for mean temperature of the coldest month, a threshold value was identified where all areas which possessed a mean winter monthly temperature less than -8.5°C resulted in increased probability of suitable habitat for red spruce to a peak of approximately -10.5°C.;In the second portion of the study, Maxent was used to model future distribution of red spruce habitat in West Virginia using 24 environmental and site-specific variables. Two climate change scenarios provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for three time periods (i.e., 2020, 2050, and 2080) were examined. Results for both model analyses indentified three variables which contributed significantly to model performance: mean temperature of the coldest quarter, elevation, and minimum temperature of the coldest month. When combined, these variables contributed more than 40% to model performance for both scenario models. Changes in suitable habitat area were also assessed for both model scenarios at each time period examined, with dramatic reductions identified. Approximately 6.2% of the land area in West Virginia was modeled to possess suitable red spruce habitat under current conditions. However, by the time period 2020, only 1.3% and 2.8% were identified for the aggressive and conservative climate change models, respectively. By the time period 2080, no suitable red spruce habitat was modeled using the aggressive climate change scenario with 53,866 ha identified using the conservative model, representing less than 1% of the land area in West Virginia

Nest-site resources for cavity-nesting birds in the southern Allegheny Mountain forests of West Virginia

Cavity-nesting birds may be negatively impacted by a lack of proper nesting sites. Southern Allegheny Mountain forests of West Virginia are unique due to the juxtaposition and diversity of forest cover types. Management must focus on monitoring wildlife population levels as well as habitat requirements within each cover type. Cavity tree abundance significantly differed among central hardwood (x¯ = 16.4; SE = 5.3), northern hardwood (x¯ =12.7; SE = 6.8), and boreal forest cover types (x¯ = 7.2; SE = 3.6) ( P \u3c 0.0001). Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) and American beech (Fagus grandifolia) were most likely to have tree cavities, yet beech may be influenced by increased mortality from recent outbreaks of beech bark disease initiated by the beech scale insect (Cryptacoccus fagisuga). Nesting bird community density, richness, and abundance do not differ among mature forests of the 3 cover types. Cavity-nesting species dependent on available tree holes were found most in the central hardwoods (P = 0.009). Forest managers should consider landscape level effects, as well as forest stand composition, when recommending silvicultural treatments

Détermination de l'importance des cavités en période hivernale et utilisation de l'habitat par le Grand Polatouche (Glaucomys sabrinus) en forêt boréale mixte de l'Est du Canada

Depuis l'adoption en 2001 d'une nouvelle loi sur les forêts souscrivant aux principes de développement durable, le maintien de la biodiversité est devenu un enjeu de poids pour l'aménagement forestier au Québec. Pour atteindre cet objectif, certains auteurs suggèrent de conserver les cavités qui constituent une ressource faunique importante autour de laquelle interagissent les pics, certains oiseaux forestiers et d'autres petits mammifères tels que le Grand Polatouche (Glaucomys sabrinus). Ce dernier est un rongeur arboricole nocturne qui utilise les cavités comme refuge diurne et site de mise bas, et pour lequel l'utilisation de l'habitat est peu connue en forêt boréale de l'est du Canada. Puisque les cavités sont souvent peu disponibles en forêt boréale et qu'elles pourraient offrir une isolation thermique supérieure à celle d'autres types de nids, les cavités ont le potentiel de limiter la présence du Grand Polatouche dans un climat rigoureux. L'objectif de cette étude était de déterminer si les cavités affectent l'utilisation de l'habitat par le Grand Polatouche et de décrire les caractéristiques des nids utilisés en période hivernale. En forêt boréale, puisque la majorité des cavités sont excavées dans le Peuplier faux-tremble (Populus tremuloides), nos hypothèses étaient que le Grand Polatouche utiliserait les forêts matures de feuillus et qu'il éviterait les milieux ouverts qui nuisent à sa dispersion. Aussi, le Grand Polatouche occuperait les sites avec une plus grande disponibilité de cavités et il préfèrerait les cavités comme refuge en période froide. Nous avons déterminé les facteurs d'habitat qui influençaient l'occupation de site et les facteurs climatiques qui affectaient la probabilité de détection de l'espèce à différentes échelles spatiales. D'abord, nous avons visité 149 paires de nichoirs à l'hiver 2008 et utilisé un SIG pour extraire des variables de composition du paysage à partir des cartes écoforestières. Ensuite, nous avons piégé 59 sites feuillus représentant un gradient de disponibilité de cavités à l'automne 2008 et échantillonné ces peuplements pour quantifier les variables d'habitat susceptibles d'influencer l'occupation de site par le Grand Polatouche. Finalement, 46 individus parmi les 85 individus capturés ont été suivis par télémétrie entre septembre 2008 et juin 2009 afin d'identifier leurs refuges diurnes, et de tester l'effet de la température sur leur sélection. Les résultats supportent partiellement nos hypothèses. À l'échelle du paysage, le Grand Polatouche évite les forêts de conifères et ne semble pas être influencé par la proportion de forêt mature ou de milieux ouverts. De plus, à l'échelle du peuplement, il a été détecté dans 58% des sites échantillonnés dominés par le Peuplier faux-tremble. Par contre, la disponibilité de cavités n'influence pas l'occupation de sites par le Grand Polatouche. À l'échelle du nid, les localisations télémétriques montrent qu'en période hivernale les femelles utilisent principalement les nids au sol (44%) alors que les mâles semblent sélectionner surtout les nids externes (57%). Lorsque la température diminue, les femelles comme les mâles évitent les cavités, leur préférant respectivement les nids au sol et les nids externes. Les résultats confirment que les forêts de feuillus sont importantes pour le Grand Polatouche en forêt boréale de l'est du Canada. De plus, bien que les cavités soient utilisées par le Grand Polatouche, celles-ci ne semblent pas représenter un facteur limitant l'espèce en période froide. \ud ______________________________________________________________________________ \ud MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : Glaucomys sabrinus, nid, climat froid, télémétrie et occupation de site

REFORESTATION OF RED SPRUCE (PICEA RUBENS) ON THE CHEAT MOUNTAIN RANGE, WEST VIRGINIA

The (Plethodon nettingi) Cheat Mountain Salamander is a rare and endangered species that relies heavily on (Picea rubens) Red Spruce for habitat. P. rubens communities on the Cheat Mountain range in West Virginia have been disturbed by fires and logging, and regeneration of P. rubens stands are central to the survival of the P. netting. A supervised and unsupervised landscape classification of three Landsat images over the past 26 years was conducted to analyze change in P. rubens communities on Cheat Mountain Range. Change detection results revealed that from 1986-2012 a 52% growth increase of P. rubens stands, 18% loss, and 29% stayed the same over the last 26 years. P. rubens stands are vital habitat to the rare and endangered P. netting and regrowth of P. rubens is vital in restoring the habitat of the salamander on the Cheat Mountain. The regrowth of P. rubens on the Cheat Mountain range is critical to the survival of the P. nettingi. Identifying critical forest as it relates to salamander habitat is essential for conservation efforts. Since not all P. rubens stands are of equal significance to the P. nettingi, it is important to identify and map those that adhere to their stringent habitat needs as defined by forest fragmentation, aspect, slope, and lithology. I used spatial analysis and remote sensing techniques to define critical forest characteristics by applying a forest fragmentation model utilizing morphological image analysis, northeast and southwest aspects, moderate slopes, and limestone lithology. Patches were ranked based on this quantitative model and key P. rubens stands identified using spatial statistics. The results could aid in prioritizing research areas as well as conservation planning in regards to P. rubens and the P. nettingi. In this study, the MaxEnt modeling framework was used to predict habitat suitability for P. rubens under current conditions and under two future climate change scenarios. P. rubens distribution data was acquired from the U.S Geological Survey. Both the IPCC A1B and A2 emission scenarios of the HadCM3 global circulation model were projected to years 2040-2069 and 2070-2099. Results showed that a substantial decline in the suitability of future P. rubens habitat on the Cheat Mountain is likely under both climate change scenarios, particularly at lower elevations. By the end of the century, P. rubens is likely to be extirpated from the Cheat Mountain Range. By the end of century, the A1B and A2 scenarios predict the average habitat suitability for P. rubens on Cheat Mountain will be 0.0002 and 0.00004 respectively. Conservation as well as species migration efforts for P. rubens should be focused on areas such as Cheat Mountain to preserve this vital habitat