Design and Analysis of a Single-Camera Omnistereo Sensor for Quadrotor Micro Aerial Vehicles (MAVs)

We describe the design and 3D sensing performance of an omnidirectional stereo (omnistereo) vision system applied to Micro Aerial Vehicles (MAVs). The proposed omnistereo sensor employs a monocular camera that is co-axially aligned with a pair of hyperboloidal mirrors (a vertically-folded catadioptric configuration). We show that this arrangement provides a compact solution for omnidirectional 3D perception while mounted on top of propeller-based MAVs (not capable of large payloads). The theoretical single viewpoint (SVP) constraint helps us derive analytical solutions for the sensor’s projective geometry and generate SVP-compliant panoramic images to compute 3D information from stereo correspondences (in a truly synchronous fashion). We perform an extensive analysis on various system characteristics such as its size, catadioptric spatial resolution, field-of-view. In addition, we pose a probabilistic model for the uncertainty estimation of 3D information from triangulation of back-projected rays. We validate the projection error of the design using both synthetic and real-life images against ground-truth data. Qualitatively, we show 3D point clouds (dense and sparse) resulting out of a single image captured from a real-life experiment. We expect the reproducibility of our sensor as its model parameters can be optimized to satisfy other catadioptric-based omnistereo vision under different circumstances

Kaleidoscopic imaging

Kaleidoscopes have a great potential in computational photography as a tool for redistributing light rays. In time-of-flight imaging the concept of the kaleidoscope is also useful when dealing with the reconstruction of the geometry that causes multiple reflections. This work is a step towards opening new possibilities for the use of mirror systems as well as towards making their use more practical. The focus of this work is the analysis of planar kaleidoscope systems to enable their practical applicability in 3D imaging tasks. We analyse important practical properties of mirror systems and develop a theoretical toolbox for dealing with planar kaleidoscopes. Based on this theoretical toolbox we explore the use of planar kaleidoscopes for multi-view imaging and for the acquisition of 3D objects. The knowledge of the mirrors positions is crucial for these multi-view applications. On the other hand, the reconstruction of the geometry of a mirror room from time-of-flight measurements is also an important problem. We therefore employ the developed tools for solving this problem using multiple observations of a single scene point.Kaleidoskope haben in der rechnergestützten Fotografie ein großes Anwendungspotenzial, da sie flexibel zur Umverteilung von Lichtstrahlen genutzt werden können. Diese Arbeit ist ein Schritt auf dem Weg zu neuen Einsatzmöglichkeiten von Spiegelsystemen und zu ihrer praktischen Anwendung. Das Hauptaugenmerk der Arbeit liegt dabei auf der Analyse planarer Spiegelsysteme mit dem Ziel, sie für Aufgaben in der 3D-Bilderzeugung praktisch nutzbar zu machen. Auch für die Time-of-flight-Technologie ist das Konzept des Kaleidoskops, wie in der Arbeit gezeigt wird, bei der Rekonstruktion von Mehrfachreflektionen erzeugender Geometrie von Nutzen. In der Arbeit wird ein theoretischer Ansatz entwickelt der die Analyse planarer Kaleidoskope stark vereinfacht. Mithilfe dieses Ansatzes wird der Einsatz planarer Spiegelsysteme im Multiview Imaging und bei der Erfassung von 3-D-Objekten untersucht. Das Wissen um die Spiegelpositionen innerhalb des Systems ist für diese Anwendungen entscheidend und erfordert die Entwicklung geeigneter Methoden zur Kalibrierung dieser Positionen. Ein ähnliches Problem tritt in Time-of-Flight Anwendungen bei der, oft unerwünschten, Aufnahme von Mehrfachreflektionen auf. Beide Problemstellungen lassen sich auf die Rekonstruktion der Geometrie eines Spiegelraums zurückführen, das mit Hilfe des entwickelten Ansatzes in allgemeinererWeise als bisher gelöst werden kann

Calibration and Reconstruction in Non-Central Axial Catadioptric Systems

Tese de doutoramento em Engenharia Electrotécnica e de Computadores, no ramo de Automação e Robótica, apresentada ao Departamento de Engenharia Eletrotécnica e de Computadores da Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de CoimbraEsta tese de doutoramento estuda sistemas de visão axiais catadióptricos nãocentrais, ou seja, sistemas com um espelho de simetria axial e uma câmara pinhole com o centro ótico pertencente ao eixo do espelho. São propostos métodos originais para calibração e reconstrução 3D usando a imagem de pontos e retas. Por “calibração” entende-se a reconstrução da geometria do sistema de visão, em termos da forma do espelho e da posição e orientação relativa camera/espelho. Para além disso, também se pretende estimar a pose da câmara em relação ao sistema de coordenadas do mundo, ou seja, a estimação dos parâmetros extrínsecos. Assume-se que a câmara pinhole está calibrada internamente a priori. Os algoritmos baseiam-se na utilização da imagem de um padrão de calibração planar, por exemplo, um padrão em xadrez. São propostos cinco algoritmos distintos. Um método estima a posição do eixo do espelho na imagem (de modo a determinar a orientação relativa câmara/ espelho) usando a invariância do cross-ratio. Outro método estima os parâmetros extrínsecos e a distância câma-ra/espelho, dado o conhecimento da forma do espelho. Baseia-se no estabelecimento de uma relação linear 3D/1D entre pontos do mundo e elementos da imagem, e na utilização do algoritmo Direct-Linear-Transformation (DLT) de modo a determinar um subconjunto dos parâmetros do sistema. Os parâmetros restantes são estimados usando procedimentos de otimização não-linear, numa variável de cada vez. Como uma extensão ao método anterior, também é proposta a estimação da forma do espelho como parte do processo de calibração. Este método utiliza a imagem de pontos e retas. Aproveita o facto de que todos os pontos num círculo da imagem centrado na origem possuem raios de retroprojeção que se intersetam num único ponto, formando um sistema de projeção central. Também é proposto um algoritmo para o caso particular de sistemas catadióptricos com espelhos esféricos, onde a calibração é alcançada através do ajuste de curvas quárticas às imagens de retas de um padrão de calibração. É derivada uma solução analítica, que é seguidamente refinada através de um procedimento de otimização não-linear. v Finalmente, considerando o caso de um sistema axial catadióptrico completamente calibrado, é feita a reconstrução da posição 3D de uma reta através de uma única imagem dessa mesma reta (que é possível devido ao facto de o sistema ser não-central). A reta é reconstruída a partir de 3 ou mais pontos na imagem, conhecendo o rácio da distância entre 3 pontos na reta (o que é uma assunção admissível em, por exemplo, ambientes estruturados com objetos arquitetónicos repetitivos, como janelas ou ladrilhos). É usada a invariância do cross-ratio de modo a restringir a localização da reta e, seguidamente, é feita a reconstrução a partir de um conjunto de pontos na imagem através de otimização não-linear. São apresentadas experiências com imagens reais e simuladas de modo a avaliar a precisão e robustez dos métodos.This PhD thesis focuses on non-central axial catadioptric vision systems, i.e. systems with an axial symmetrical mirror and a pinhole camera with its optical center located on the mirror axis. We propose novel methods to achieve calibration and 3D reconstruction from the image of points and lines. By “calibration” we mean the reconstruction of the vision system geometry, in terms of mirror shape and mirror/camera relative position and orientation. We also aim at the estimation of the pose of the camera w.r.t. the world coordinates frame, i.e. the estimation of the extrinsic parameters. We assume that the pinhole camera is internally calibrated a priori. The algorithms rely on the image of a planar calibration pattern, e.g. a checkerboard. We propose five distinct algorithms. One method aims at estimating the position of the mirror axis in the image (to determine camera/mirror relative orientation) using the cross-ratio as an invariant. Another method estimates the extrinsic parameters and camera/mirror distance given the knowledge of the mirror shape. It relies on establishing a 3D/1D linear relation between world points and image features, and using the Direct- Linear-Transformation (DLT) algorithm to obtain a subset of the system parameters. The remaining parameters are estimated using non-linear optimization, on a single variable at a time. As an extension to the previous method, we propose the estimation of the mirror shape as part of the calibration process. This method requires the image of points and lines. It uses the fact that all points in any image circle centered at the origin have backprojection rays that intersect at a single point, effectively becoming a central projection system. We also propose an algorithm for the particular case of catadioptric systems with spherical mirrors, where the calibration is achieved by fitting quartic curves to the images of lines in a calibration pattern. An analytical solution is derived, which is later refined by a non-linear optimization procedure. Finally, we consider the case of a fully calibrated non-central axial catadioptric system, and aim at the reconstruction of the 3D position of a line from a single vii image of that line (which is possible because the system is non-central). The line is reconstructed from 3 or more image points, given the knowledge of the distance ratio of 3 points in the line (a fair assumption in, for example, structured environments with repetitive architectural features, like windows or tiles). We use cross-ratio as an invariant to constrain the line localization and then perform the reconstruction from a set of image points through non-linear optimization. Experiments with simulated and real images are performed to evaluate the accuracy and robustness of the methods.FCT - PROTEC SFRH/BD/50281/200

Omnidirectional Stereo Vision for Autonomous Vehicles

Environment perception with cameras is an important requirement for many applications for autonomous vehicles and robots. This work presents a stereoscopic omnidirectional camera system for autonomous vehicles which resolves the problem of a limited field of view and provides a 360° panoramic view of the environment. We present a new projection model for these cameras and show that the camera setup overcomes major drawbacks of traditional perspective cameras in many applications

Vision-based Navigation and Mapping Using Non-central Catadioptric Omnidirectional Camera

Omnidirectional catadioptric cameras find their use in navigation and mapping, owing to their wide field of view. Having a wider field of view, or rather a potential 360 degree field of view, allows the user to see and move more freely in the navigation space. A catadioptric camera system is a low cost system which consists of a mirror and a camera. A calibration method was developed in order to obtain the relative position and orientation between the two components so that they can be considered as one monolithic system. The position of the system was determined, for an environment using the conditions obtained from the reflective properties of the mirror. Object control points were set up and experiments were performed at different sites to test the mathematical models and the achieved location and mapping accuracy of the system. The obtained positions were then used to map the environment