Potential synergies between existing multilateral environmental agreements in the implementation of Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry activities

There is potential for synergy between the global environmental conventions on climate change, biodiversity and desertification: changes in land management and land use undertaken to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions can simultaneously deliver positive outcomes for conservation of biodiversity, and mitigation of desertification and land degradation. However, while there can be complementarities between the three environmental goals, there are often tradeoffs. Thus, the challenge lies in developing land use policies that promote optimal environmental outcomes, and in implementing these locally to promote sustainable development. The paper considers synergies and tradeoffs in implementing land use measures to address the objectives of the three global environmental conventions, both from an environmental and economic perspective. The intention is to provide environmental scientists and policy makers with a broad overview of these considerations, and the benefits of addressing the conventions simultaneously.Climate change, LULUCF, Biodiversity, Desertification, Sustainable development.

A 25-Year History of the use of Organic Soil Amendments in Oman: A review

Organic soil amendments have been used in Oman since prehistoric agriculture began and are still being used today. Recently, interest in certified organic farming, and the use of organic soil amendments to enhance soil quality has motivated more research on traditional and new diverse soil amendment products. In addition, the arid climate of Oman combined with sandy soils benefit from non-traditional soil amendments and nutrient sources, such as treated human waste and wastewater. These two are not allowed in certified organic farming but offer sustainable solutions to building soil health for non-certified crops. This review will cover studies of soil quality in Oman related to the comparison of these various amendments, including manures, composts, organic mulch materials, biochar, ash, and others. In general, most of these amendments improve the soil by adding organic carbon, increasing the water holding capacity, improving infiltration rate, and stimulating or providing habitat and food sources for diverse soil microbiological communities. Some amendments can also help crops overcome some of the stresses of agriculture in Oman, such as soil salinity, heat and drought. Most also provide macro and micronutrients for crop growth. Some anti-quality factors may be present however, such as a high carbon to nitrogen ratio in some mulches, or high heavy metal content, human pathogens, and pharmaceutical residues in treated waste or wastewater. Biochar may have a positive or negative effect on soil microbes, depending on the source material and temperature of combustion can result in byproducts that inhibit microbes. The value of soil microorganisms has been shown in organic cropping systems, and several new species have been discovered in Oman. Some of these provide possibilities for biocontrol of pathogens, and increased salt tolerance in crops like tomato. Though much valuable research has been done in Oman and the rest of the world, there is much left to be done to determine the effects of these organic amendments over the long term, and also the interactions among various amendments, soil conditions, soil microbes, and on crops grown with different irrigation methods and cropping systems

Rainfed agriculture: unlocking the potential

Rainfed farming / Soil degradation / Crop production / Climate change / Irrigation methods / Water harvesting / Yield gap / Models / Supplemental irrigation / Water productivity / Watershed management / India

Diversification in Indian agriculture towards high-value crops: The role of smallholders

"Agricultural diversification towards high-value crops can potentially increase farm incomes, especially in a country like India where demand for high-value food products has been increasing more quickly than that for staple crops. Indian agriculture is overwhelmingly dominated by smallholders, and researchers have long debated the ability of a smallholder-dominated subsistence farm economy to diversify into riskier high-value crops. Here, we present evidence that the gradual diversification of Indian agriculture towards high-value crops exhibits a pro-smallholder bias, with smallholders playing a proportionally larger role in the cultivation of vegetables versus fruits. The observed patterns are consistent with simple comparative advantage-based production choices. The comparatively high labor endowments of the small farmers, as reflected in their greater family sizes, induce them to diversify towards vegetables. Although fruit cultivation is also labor intensive (as compared to cultivation of staples), fruits are relatively capital intensive, making them a less advantageous choice for smallholders who tend to have low capital endowments. Furthermore, both the probability of participation in fruit and vegetable cultivation as well as land allocation to horticulture decreases with the size of landholdings in India. Small or medium holders do not appear to allocate a greater share of land to fruits or vegetables. However, the share allocated to vegetables is significantly higher if the family size is bigger, while the reverse is true in the case of fruits." from Authors' Abstractdiversification, Smallholders, small farms, High value agriculture,

Improved fallows in Eastern Zambia: history, farmer practice and impacts

"The decline in soil fertility in smallholder systems is a major factor inhibiting equitable development in much of sub-Saharan Africa. Some areas fallow in order to strength soil fertility for later planting, but as populations increase, demand follows and continuous cropping becomes the norm and there is a reduction in yields. This case study summarizes the development of improved tree fallows by researchers and farmers in eastern Zambia to help solve the problem of poor soil fertility. Many farmers are finding that by using improved fallows, they can substitute relatively small amounts of land and labor for cash, which they would need to buy mineral fertilizer. The study has three phases: the historical background (phase 1); an assessment of problems, description of the technology, and how it was developed (phase 2); and how the improved fallows practices were disseminated and spread (phase 3). This paper will describe each phase, the goals, and results." Authors' AbstractSouthern Africa, africa south of sahara, Crop yields,

A Review on the Role of Climate Smart Agriculture for Sustainable Crop Production

Almost all sectors, especially agriculture are highly climate sensitive and thus climate change have both direct and indirect negative impacts on production systems. Changes in climate, increased frequency and intensity of climate shocks (such as drought, flooding and extreme temperatures) as well as changing distribution and timing of rainfall are major factors which negatively affect sustainable crop production. This needs the solution to feed rapidly increasing population in the world especially African countries due to their less ability to cope the climate change. Therefore, one of the proposed means is climate smart agriculture. CSA is defined by three objectives: firstly, increasing agricultural productivity to support increased incomes, food security and development; secondly, increasing adaptive capacity at multiple levels (from farm to nation) and thirdly, decreasing greenhouse gas emissions and increasing carbon sinks/sequestration. There are many agricultural practices which are important for this approach some of them include conservation agriculture, agro forestry, soil and water conservation techniques and irrigation practices. CSA integrates climate change into the planning and implementation of sustainable agriculture and informs priority-setting. Identifying appropriate ways to incentivize the uptake of climate smart alternatives is a key priority to improve productivity and reduce yield variability. Keywords; Conservation Agriculture, Agro-forestry, Carbon Sequestration, Adaptive Capacity DOI: 10.7176/JBAH/9-12-02 Publication date:June 30th 201

Soil biodiversity: functions, threats and tools for policy makers

Human societies rely on the vast diversity of benefits provided by nature, such as food, fibres, construction materials, clean water, clean air and climate regulation. All the elements required for these ecosystem services depend on soil, and soil biodiversity is the driving force behind their regulation. With 2010 being the international year of biodiversity and with the growing attention in Europe on the importance of soils to remain healthy and capable of supporting human activities sustainably, now is the perfect time to raise awareness on preserving soil biodiversity. The objective of this report is to review the state of knowledge of soil biodiversity, its functions, its contribution to ecosystem services and its relevance for the sustainability of human society. In line with the definition of biodiversity given in the 1992 Rio de Janeiro Convention, soil biodiversity can be defined as the variation in soil life, from genes to communities, and the variation in soil habitats, from micro-aggregates to entire landscapes. Bio Intelligence Service, IRD, and NIOO, Report for European Commission (DG Environment

Simulations of Carbon Dynamics and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Bioenergy Sorghum Production Systems in Texas

Bioenergy sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench.] is a promising biofuel crop to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, optimum field management practices for its production in different regions and the effects of its long-term production on overall soil-plant-atmosphere carbon (C) dynamics are unknown. Our objectives were to evaluate the long-term regional effects of its production on C dynamics and GHG emissions in Texas, and find the best field management practices for its production in order to maximize yield, sustain soil fertility, and minimize GHG emissions by using the process-based biogeochemical model, DAYCENT. The model was parameterized by using field measurements of soil temperature, soil water, aboveground biomass C, soil organic C (SOC), and GHG emissions including carbon dioxide (COv2) and nitrous oxide (Nv2O) from a 8-year field trial with treatments of residue return, nitrogen (N) fertilization, and tillage (6 combinations). The results showed an overall satisfactory fit when comparing simulated outputs to measured data, with an r^2 range of 0.49-0.90. DAYCENT was able to simulate the pattern and magnitude of measurement variation caused by treatment and seasonal change. Life cycle analysis (LCA) of net GHG emissions in different treatments mentioned above (8 combinations) at our field trial site was conducted and accounted for main C sources and sinks. Of all C sinks, displaced fossil fuel during bioethanol conversion was the largest one, followed by SOC sequestration and methane (CHv4) oxidation. Of all C sources, Nv2O emissions was the largest one, followed by energy requirements for fertilizer N manufacture and field machinery operations. Most management combinations were able to sequester atmospheric CO2 except treatments with high N fertilization and residue return, mainly due to high Nv2O emissions and low displaced fossil fuel C emissions. County-level net GHG emissions using different irrigation availabilities and the management treatments mentioned above (135 combinations) were evaluated by integrating representative weather and soil conditions, field management schedules, and verified bioenergy sorghum growth parameters. As a result, 0% residue return, no-till, and 150 kg ha^-1 of N fertilization under limited irrigation was the best consideration for optimum management of bioenergy sorghum production in most cases

Technologies for climate change adaptation: agricultural sector

This Guidebook presents a selection of technologies for climate change adaptation in the agricultural sector. A set of twenty two adaptation technologies are showcased that are primarily based on the principals of agroecology, but also include scientific technologies of climate and biological sciences complemented with important sociological and institutional capacity building processes that are required to make adaptation function. The technologies cover monitoring and forecasting the climate, sustainable water use and management, soil management, sustainable crop management, seed conservation, sustainable forest management and sustainable livestock management. Technologies that tend to homogenize the natural environment and agricultural production have low possibilities of success in conditions of environmental stress that are likely to result from climate change. On the other hand, technologies that allow for, and indeed promote, diversity are more likely to provide a strategy which strengthens agricultural production in the face of uncertain future climate change scenarios. In this sense, the twenty two technologies showcased in this Guidebook have been selected because they facilitate the conservation and restoration of diversity while at the same time providing opportunities for increasing agricultural productivity. Many of these technologies are not new to agricultural production practices, but they are implemented based on assessment of current and possible future impacts of climate change in a particular location. Agro-ecology is an approach that encompasses concepts of sustainable production and biodiversity promotion and therefore provides a useful framework for identifying and selecting appropriate adaptation technologies for the agricultural sector. The Guidebook provides a systematic analysis of the most relevant information available on climate change adaptation technologies in the agriculture sector. It has been compiled based on a literature review of key publications, journal articles, and e-platforms, and by drawing on documented experiences sourced from a range of organizations working on projects and programmes concerned with climate change adaptation technologies in the agricultural sector. Its geographic scope is focused on developing countries where high levels of poverty, agricultural production, climate variability and biological diversity currently intersect. Key concepts around climate change adaptation are not universally agreed. It is therefore important to understand local contexts – especially social and cultural norms - when working with national and sub-national stakeholders to make informed decisions about appropriate technology options. Thus, decision-making processes should be participative, facilitated, and consensus-building oriented and should be based on the following key guiding principles: increasing awareness and knowledge, strengthening institutions, protecting natural resources, providing financial assistance and developing context-specific strategies. For decision-making the Community–Based Adaptation framework is proposed for creating inclusive governance that engages a range of stakeholders directly with local or district government and national coordinating bodies, and facilitates participatory planning, monitoring and implementation of adaptation activities. Seven criteria are suggested for the prioritization of adaptation technologies: (i) The extent to which the technology maintains or strengthens biological diversity and is environmentally sustainable; (ii) The extent to which the technology facilitates access to information systems and awareness of climate change information; (iii) Whether the technology support water, carbon and nutrient cycles and enables stable and/or increased productivity; (iv) Income-generating potential, cost-benefit analysis and contribution to improved equity; (v) Respect for cultural diversity and facilitation of inter-cultural exchange; (vi) Potential for integration into regional and national policies and can be scaled-up; (vii) The extent to which the technology builds formal and information institutions and social networks. Finally, recommendations are set out for practitioners and policy makers: • There is an urgent need for improved climate modelling and forecasting which can provide a basis for informed decision-making and the implementation of adaptation strategies. This should include traditional knowledge. • Information is also required to better understand the behaviour of plants, animals, pests and diseases as they react to climate change. • Potential changes in economic and social systems in the future under different climate scenarios should also be investigated so that the implications of adaptation strategy and planning choices are better understood. • It is important to secure effective flows of information through appropriate dissemination channels. This is vital for building adaptive capacity and decision-making processes. • Improved analysis of adaptation technologies is required to show how they can contribute to building adaptive capacity and resilience in the agricultural sector. This information needs to be compiled and disseminated for a range of stakeholders from local to national level. • Relationships between policy makers, researchers and communities should be built so that technologies and planning processes are developed in partnership, responding to producers’ needs and integrating their knowledge

Fed Up: Now's the Time to Invest in Agro-Ecology

As trends in investment in agriculture in poorer countries edge up, the combined effects of climate change, energy scarcity and water paucity now demand that we radically rethink our agricultural systems.Business as usual will not do. An unprecedented combination of pressures is emerging to threatenthe health of existing social and ecological systems. Population and income growth, urbanization,changing consumption patterns, stagnant yields, demand for land, feed, and biofuels, and theimpact of climate change, biodiversity loss and environmental degradation are driving limited resources of food, energy, water and materials towards critical thresholds.The combined effects of climate change, land degradation, cropland losses, water scarcity and species infestations may cause projected yields to be 5-25% short of demand by 2050, and 600 million additional people could be affected by malnutrition as a direct result of climate change by 2080.The current food system is failing to feed the world adequately, and widespread poverty and inequality mean that many are too poor to access the food that is available. Despite there being enough food for everyone, an estimated 925 million people are hungry and another billion suffer from 'hidden hunger' and micro-nutrient deficiency, while 1.5 billion people are overweight and obese, and a third of all food for human consumption is lost, spoiled, or wasted.Productivity gains from the Green Revolution have not always been sustainable over time and often came at a high social and environmental cost, including the depletion of soils, pollution of groundwater, biodiversity loss, high household debts, and increased inequality among farmers.With case study evidences from Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia and Pakistan, and citing global studies and surveys, this report argues that agro-ecology -- or ecological agriculture -- offers tools that can help the poorest communities to develop new, affordable, dynamic, low-carbon and locally-adaptable models of agricultural development to meet these multiple challenges. Recent research shows that agro-ecology is highly productive and holds great promise for the roughly 500 million food-insecure households around the world.Agro-ecology is the application of ecological science to the study, design, and management of sustainable agriculture, and it is based on practices such as recycling biomass, improving soils through green manures, mulches and bio-fertilisers, minimising water, nutrient and solar radiationlosses, intercropping, mixed farming with a variety of crops and farm animals, and minimising the use of chemical fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides