Five-Factor Inventory of Intrinsic Motivations to Gameplay (IMG)

In this study, we develop and validate Intrinsic Motivations to Gameplay (IMG) inventory. In Study 1, psychometric properties of a preliminary 10-item version of IMG were investigated by employing an online survey data collected among Finnish and Danish population (N = 2,205). In Study 2, a 23-item version of IMG was developed based on further interview data and survey data collected among Canadian population (N = 1,322). The 23-item version of IMG revealed five factors of intrinsic motivations for gameplay: Relatedness, Autonomy, Competence, Immersion, and Fun. In Study 3, a third survey was conducted among Finnish and Japanese participants (N = 2,057) to design a Self-Determination theory (SDT) informed confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The CFA validated a 15-item version of IMG inventory, which can be utilized widely in studies on digital gaming and gamification to better understand player preferences

Understanding specific gaming experiences: the case of open world games

Digital games offer players a variety of experiences. Open world games allow players to choose what to engage with, and subsequently choose what experiences they want to have. However, this means it is not always clear what players are doing or why, even within the same game. This lack of commonality questions what it means to have `a’ gaming experience if there is little overlap in player behaviour. This thesis explored what it means to experience an open world game, and how experiences are unique to specific games/type of games. The first two studies showed that despite differences in what players do, there is an overarching experience: self-pacing gameplay by choosing what to engage with. Studies three and four explored if motivation could explain what experiences players pursue, but current measurement tools were not statistically or conceptually dependable enough to provide robust findings. Study five conversely explored whether goals can explain player behaviour, and found players consider their actions goal-directed. Finally, study six explored how to overlay goals to actions taken in a specific gaming session. This revealed that the game also provides goals for players to consider, meaning gameplay is not only driven by player intent. Overall, open world games are a series of contextually-situated experiences; players purposefully engage with in-game content, but remain flexible to what the game may offer in the moment. Whilst individual experiences vary greatly, players had the same unifying experience of navigating goal pursuit. Goals can be related to gameplay data to reveal what player-game interactions take place, and how players report them. Therefore, this thesis shows players can have little overlap in the specific experiences they have within games, yet still have the same overarching experience. Understanding such experiences requires data from a player’s perspective, as gameplay data alone cannot reveal player intent

Growing Together : An Analysis of Measurement Transparency Across 15 Years of Player Motivation Questionnaires

There are many questionnaires to assess player motivation, originating from a diverse range of disciplines. Each discipline differs in their usage and reporting of questionnaires, but there has been no attempt to synthesise or standardise their application. No standard approach leads to a lack of transparency in usage reporting, which affects the ability of the field to synthesise. This has made it unclear whether player motivation research is a unified community, or a collection of individuals with a similar goal. Therefore, the current work assesses the transparency of reporting practices of player motivation questionnaires published within the last 15 years. 18 questionnaires were identified via a scoping review, then papers citing these questionnaires were analysed for their transparency of reporting practices (n=238); first via a content analysis of justifications for use, then followed by an analysis of transparency against eight criteria created for this work. Overall, reporting transparency is lacking, driven by little priority for presenting items alongside text. Many papers use questionnaires because they are theory-based or have measured specific variables in previous works, but explicit justification is rare. The work concludes with a transparency checklist based on the eight criteria used, which authors can use to standardise the field and allow for more cohesive research synthesis

Exploring Gameful Motivation of Autonomous Learners

In this explorative study, we investigated motives of autonomous learners to participate in an online course, and how these motives are related to gameplay motivations, engagement in the course experience, and learning outcomes. The guiding premise for the study has been the idea that learning and game playing carry phenomenal similarities that could be revealed by scrutinizing motives for participating in a massive open online course that does not involve any intentionally game-like features. The research was conducted by analyzing survey data (N = 705) collected from individuals who had voluntarily participated in an open online course about artificial intelligence and its societal impact. The survey included an explorative Motives for Autonomous Learning (MAL) inventory. Exploratory factor analysis suggested that the MAL inventory consisted of six dimensions out of which four were consistent with factors that earlier research has associated with motives to engage with video games. Of the identified factors, the dimension that most clearly described autonomous and playful predispositions was found to be a main precedent for both experienced gamefulness of the learning experience and positive learning outcomes. In all, the results of this study demonstrated that playfulness and autonomy were both prominent and significant factors across the whole learning process

Architecture of Belonging – A Social Identity-based Design Theory of Community Identification in Multiplayer Video Games

Recently several studies have worked towards a better understanding of reasons to play multiplayer online games (MOGs). Despite multiple approaches used, understanding of the topic remains incomplete due to its complexity. This study constructs an explanatory design theory of community identification as a predictor of engagement in MOGs. To that end, a structured multimixed-method study was conducted. First, a quantitative survey (N=236) was used to illustrate the explanatory power of community identification in the specific context of our study. Second, a workshop (N=10) was held identifying similarity and mutual influence as the most meaningful design elements of community identification. On this basis, and building off the design science paradigm, and assumptions from the contrast model and interactive richness, an explanatory design theory to foster community identification in MOGs is derived. The model features the elements of the design factors similarity (high vs. low) and interactive richness (rich vs. poor) that can be tested in future (experimental) research

Contribution of Exergaming Behaviour to Physical Activity: Toward Better Understanding the Role of Motivation

Physical activity (PA) is associated with numerous health benefits. Because PA patterns established early in life track into adulthood, it is important that children develop and sustain healthy PA habits. Current guidelines recommend that youth accumulate ≥ 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous intensity PA daily, but many youth do not attain this level. Evaluation of public health interventions that aim to promote PA provide little evidence of sustained positive effects over time. This could relate, at least in part, to interventions lacking a strong conceptual foundation and, in particular, to a lack of underpinnings that recognize the central role of motivation in PA. It is important that effective strategies to increase and sustain healthy PA levels in youth are identified. The Self-Determination Theory is used to explain why people adopt and maintain healthy PA behaviors and posits that sustained PA relates to natural or intrinsic tendencies or motivations to behave in healthy and effective ways. Positive PA experiences in school, at home and in community settings may foster an internal desire or motivation to sustain PA participation simply for its challenges or for enjoyment. Lack of sustained PA among youth could reflect a scarcity of enjoyable PA options that fit with the sophisticated technetronic expectations of youth today. PA interventions must “keep up with the times,” by acknowledging young peoples’ prevailing interests and by incorporating advancements in technology that heighten interest and motivation for PA. Exergaming, a type of non-sedentary videogame that requires players to be physically active in order to attain a series of incrementally challenging goals, is increasingly viewed as an enjoyable PA option among today’s technology-immersed youth. However, although critical to informing the design, implementation and sustainability of exergaming interventions, evidence on exergaming-related motivation, preferences, intentions and sustainability is lacking. Research in this domain is needed to ascertain whether exergaming interventions can help youth become and remain physically active, and which facets of exergaming hold the most promise in sustaining positive PA change. More specifically, using “gamified augmented reality” such as exergaming could help youth attain recommended PA levels and promote sustainable healthy behaviour, while at the same time contributing to enjoyment of PA. The three studies described in this thesis examine motivation and exergaming in-depth using SDT and its tenants as a theoretical guide and a common theme across studies. Thus, the role of motivation and intentions in exergaming behaviour and how they contribute to PA in the general population of youth is a key contribution of this dissertation. Study 1, a review of reviews on exergaming, provides background for the next two studies, each of which was conducted in population-based (as opposed to clinical or experimental) settings. Twenty-five reviews spanning 2009 to 2016 were retained, each of which incorporated between 5 and 100 articles. A positive relationship between exergaming and energy expenditure (EE) was well-documented, but whether exergaming increases PA or changes body composition was not established. There is however, evidence that exergaming (i.e., as a non-sedentary use of screens) is a healthy alternative to sedentary behaviour, that it improves cognitive function, that it is an interesting and enjoyable pastime in youth, that it shows promise as a PA option by adding variety and alternative PA forms in health and dietary interventions and finally that it is likely more health-promoting than traditional videogames because of higher EE and possibly improved physical fitness, body composition and cognitive health. However, more research and specifically, longitudinal studies are needed to assess whether exergaming can be sustained to obtain these benefits over time. Study 2 identified correlates of sustained exergaming. We reported that almost 50% of grade 9 students sustained exergaming for 2-3 years. Study results suggest that in non-clinical settings, exergaming may be a practical approach to help adolescents maintain PA during adolescence. Study 3 examined the psychometric properties of a new scale to assess reasons for exergaming (i.e., the Reasons to Exergame (RTEX) scale). This study also examined whether and how the scale relates to the timing, intensity and duration of past-month exergaming. RTEX items were developed in consultation with PA and exergaming experts and using key exergaming constructs, including PA, general interest in videogames and enjoyment of exergaming. RTEX was found to be a reliable and valid assessment of reasons to exergame. However, further studies should replicate these initial findings in larger, more diverse samples

Player attitudes to avatar development in digital games: an exploratory study of single-player role-playing games and other genres

Digital games incorporate systems that allow players to customise and develop their controllable in-game representative (avatar) over the course of a game. Avatar customisation systems represent a point at which the goals and values of players interface with the intentions of the game developer forming a dynamic and complex relationship between system and user. With the proliferation of customisable avatars through digital games and the ongoing monetisation of customisation options through digital content delivery platforms it is important to understand the relationship between player and avatar in order to provide a better user experience and to develop an understanding of the cultural impact of the avatar. Previous research on avatar customisation has focused on the users of virtual worlds and massively multiplayer games, leaving single-player avatar experiences. These past studies have also typically focused on one particular aspect of avatar customisation and those that have looked at all factors involved in avatar customisation have done so with a very small sample. This research has aimed to address this gap in the literature by focusing primarily on avatar customisation features in single-player games, aiming to investigate the relationship between player and customisation systems from the perspective of the players of digital games. To fulfill the research aims and objectives, the qualitative approach of interpretative phenomenological analysis was adopted. Thirty participants were recruited using snowball and purposive sampling (the criteria being that participants had played games featuring customisable avatars) and accounts of their experiences were gathered through semi-structured interviews. Through this research, strategies of avatar customisation were explored in order to demonstrate how people use such systems. The shortcomings in game mechanics and user interfaces were highlighted so that future games can improve the avatar customisation experience

Modes of Esports Engagement in Overwatch

This Open Access book provides a comprehensive review of the rapidly developing esport phenomenon by examining one of its contemporary flagship titles, Overwatch (Blizzard Entertainment 2016), through three central themes and from a rich variety of research methods and perspectives. As a game with more than 40 million individual players, an annual international World Cup, and a franchised professional league with teams from Canada, China, Europe, South Korea, and the US, Overwatch provides a multifaceted perspective to the cultural, social, and economic topics associated with the development of esports, which has begun to attract attention from both commercial and academic audiences. The book starts with an introduction chapter to Overwatch and esports engagement in general, co-authored by the editors. This is followed by 15 unique chapters from scholars within the field of game cultures and esports, representing ten different nationalities. The contributions construct thematic sections that divide the book into three parts: Players, Diverse Audiences? and Fan & Fiction Work. As such, the parts provide a wide-ranging overview of esport engagement, thus disclosing the phenomenon’s cross-cultural, transmedial, and interconnected relations that have not been probed earlier in a single anthology

Proceedings of the 54th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences 2021

Recently several studies have worked towards a better understanding of reasons to play multiplayer online games (MOGs). Despite multiple approaches used, understanding of the topic remains incomplete due to its complexity. This study constructs an explanatory design theory of community identification as a predictor of engagement in MOGs. To that end, a structured multimixed-method study was conducted. First, a quantitative survey (N=236) was used to illustrate the explanatory power of community identification in the specific context of our study. Second, a workshop (N=10) was held identifying similarity and mutual influence as the most meaningful design elements of community identification. On this basis, and building off the design science paradigm, and assumptions from the contrast model and interactive richness, an explanatory design theory to foster community identification in MOGs is derived. The model features the elements of the design factors similarity (high vs. low) and interactive richness (rich vs. poor) that can be tested in future (experimental) research.</p