First-Class Nonstandard Interpretations by Opening Closures

We motivate and discuss a novel functional programming construct that allows convenient modular run-time nonstandard interpretation via reflection on closure environments. This map-closure construct encompasses both the ability to examine the contents of a closure environment and to construct a new closure with a modified environment. From the user’s perspective, map-closure is a powerful and useful construct that supports such tasks as tracing, security logging, sandboxing, error checking, profiling, code instrumentation and metering, run-time code patching, and resource monitoring. From the implementor’s perspective, map-closure is analogous to call/cc. Just as call/cc is a non-referentiallytransparent mechanism that reifies the continuations that are only implicit in programs written in direct style, map-closure is a nonreferentially- transparent mechanism that reifies the closure environments that are only implicit in higher-order programs. Just as CPS conversion is a non-local but purely syntactic transformation that can eliminate references to call/cc, closure conversion is a non-local but purely syntactic transformation that can eliminate references to map-closure. We show how the combination of map-closure and call/cc can be used to implement set! as a procedure definition and a local macro transformation

Mor-Flo Industries, Inc. and Polaris Water Heaters/Arlington Place v. Industrial Commission of Utah : Brief of Petitioner

BRIEF OF PETITIONERS

Mor-Flo Industries, Inc. and Polaris Water Heaters/Arlington Place v. Industrial Commission of Utah Safety Division : Brief of Respondent

BRIEF OF RESPONDENT

Improving the knowledge and management of the historical built environment with BIM and ontologies: the case study of the Book Tower

The historical built environment is acknowledged as a valuable material and cultural resource that needs to be preserved. Usually, however, there are difficulties that do not allow to effectively analyze and document it. Difficulties arising from building characteristics (e.g. irregular shape), site characteristics (e.g. particular natural or artificial context) or other exceptional events (e.g. natural disasters) make it impossible to use only traditional theories, tools and techniques. On the contrary, digital technologies give the opportunity to improve and expand the comprehension of complex artifacts. The objective of our research is to elaborate and propose a theoretical and methodological framework to improve the comprehension and management of the historical built environment with digital technologies. The recorded information can be essential to plan and manage a recovery plan and/or a maintenance program taking into consideration also aspects linked to cultural diversity and environmental sustainability. In this paper we will deal mainly with the constructive and relational characteristics of historical buildings. The constructive characteristics point out the constructive system of an artifact (number, type and material of technical elements, etc.), whilst the relational characteristics represent the relations among the internal components of the artifact and other external elements that could be of various kind (persons, places, etc.). To analyze and document these characteristics we used mainly Building Information Management (BIM) software (Revit) and an ontology editor (TopBraid Composer). Revit was used for the digital 3D reconstruction and TopBraid Composer was used to represent and organize the relational characteristics. Both were applied to a case study: the Book Tower in Ghent, Belgium. This is one of the most important historical (20th century) buildings in the city of Ghent. Through the paper we will show the methodology we used, the issues we tackled and possible future developments

Industrial Commission of Utah v. Mor-Flo Industries : Brief in Opposition to Certiorari

ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UTAH SUPREME COURT BRIEF OF RESPONDENTS IN OPPOSITION TO CERTIORAR

Tripos models of Internal Set Theory

This thesis provides a framework to make sense of models of E. Nelson’s Internal Set Theory (and hence of nonstandard analysis) in elementary toposes by exploiting the technology of tripos theory and Lawvere’s hyperdoctrines. A new doctrinal account of nonstandard phenomena is described, which avoids a few key restrictions in Nelson’s approach: chiefly, the dependence on Set Theory (which is done by replacing a model of set theory with a topos as the starting point) and reliance on an internally defined notion of standard element. From the new perspective, validity of the schemes of Idealisation, Standardisation, and Transfer correspond to the existence of certain relationships between hyperdoctrines, leading to the new notion of a tripos model of IST. After discussing the properties of such models that make them a suitable abstraction of classic IST we explore situations in which such structures arise, leading to two distinct main classes of models: what we refer to as Nelson models, which are those for which there is a well-behaved `predicate of standard elements’ (providing thus a close approximation of classic IST valid for toposes), and models obtained by elaborating on the work started by A. Kock and C. J. Mikkelsen on the categorification of Transfer. We then elaborate upon one particular kind of model of each type: the ultrapower models, which are Nelson models obtained from a choice of adequate ultrafilter and that mirror the constructions of classical Robinson nonstandard analysis, and the localic models for Transfer and Standardisation, which are obtained from any given open surjection of locales (e.g universal covers of topological spaces) via the Kock-Mikkelsen construction at the level of sheaf toposes.This study was funded by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) (process n∘ 8881.128278/2016-01)

Linguistic change in a nonstandard dialect: phonological studies in the history of English in Ireland

It is not my aim to write a unified history of the English language an Ireland, since this has already been undertaken elsewhere (e.g. Hogan 1927; Bliss 1977,1979; Barry 1982). Rather I wish to concentrate on several specifically phonological developments which allow us to disentangle the competing but sometimes complementary influences exerted by Irish, English and Scots on Hiberno-English (henceforth HE). This emphasis reflects an attempt not only to chart the historical developments in greater detail than has been done hitherto but also to contribute to our theoretical understanding of phonological change. For various reasons the focus is for the most part on northern HE. For one thing, a detailed history of southern HE is already available (Bliss 1979). Secondly, much of my own research has been undertaken in the north, particularly while I was working on the project Sociolinguistic variation and linguistic change in Belfast M Milroy et al 1983). Most importantly, however, northern HE with its mixed linguistic heritage offers a rich and relatively untapped source of data for investigating the extent to which dialect contact may be implicated in phonological change. Despite the emphasis on northern HE, I draw on comparative material from southern dialects throughout the following pages. It is often remarked that, in contrast to the relative homogeneity of southern BE, the linguistic situation in the north of Ireland is quite varied (e. g. Adams 1977: 56). In fact Adam (1973) finds it convenient to recognise at least seven basic northern varieties spoken in an area with a population of just under two million. This diversity is in part a reflection of the complex interaction of Scots and English influences in the north, in addition to the contribution of Irish which has left its mark to varying degrees on all types of HE. It is the Scots element in particular that distinguishes much of northern from southern BE. Almost everything that has ever been written on HE stresses the supposed effects of Irish Gaelic contact with English on its development. I take up this issue in a treatment of HE consonant phonology in Chapter 3 and give it more detailed attention elsewhere in a discussion of the growth and structure of the HE verb phrase (Harris 1982). Although this is clearly an important area, it has been much discussed and it is not my intention to go over the sane ground here. Rather the focus in this thesis is on two other aspects of language contact in the north of Ireland. Firstly, I examine the linguistic developments that have arisen from contact between the typologically divergent phonological systems of English and Scots dialects. Secondly, I attempt to isolate several changes which reflect contact between nonstandard HE and modern standard British varieties. In Chapter 1 I describe the main types of northern HE that can be identified according to the different ways in which the tensions between English and Scots influences have been resolved. The conditions of contact are in many ways similar to those that obtained in the early stages of British settlement in North America. It therefore comes as no surprise to discover close linguistic parallels between certain United States and Canadian dialects on the one hand and northern HE on the other. These similarities also reflect the fact that the major British colonisation of Ireland was roughly contemporary with that of. North America. Hibernian and American dialects of English display many common seventeenth-century features which have since been lost from standard British varieties. The tension between Scots and English influences in northern HE manifests itself most clearly in the area of vowel phonology. Some dialects display a typically English system in which vowel length is phonemic. That is, in these varieties it is possible to identify one subsystem of inherently long vowels and another of inherently short vowels. In characteristically Scots dialects, on the other hand, vowel length is to a large extent phonetically conditioned. Between these two types lies a range of 'mixed' dialects which show varying degrees of compromise between phonemic and positional length. The diffusion of the English and Scots length patterns across different dialects, vowels and phonological environments can be expressed in term of implicational hierarchies which I set up in Chapter 2.I also examine the phonetic facts which can plausibly be said to deternine the order of segment-types on the hierarchies. In Chapter 3, Iattempt a partial. reconstruction of the internal history of the urban HE vernacular spoken in Belfast. By inspecting present-day sociolinguistic variation for signs of change in progress and checking the results against historical records, it is possible to identify the main phonological developments that have occurred over the last century or so. Comparative material from the city's rural hinterland dialects and from the descendants of the original British source dialects allows us to chart the continuing competition between English and Scots linguistic features. It is also possible to offer a fairly clear picture of the sorts of adaptive change that have been taking place in the vernacular as a result of contact with external standard norms. Thanks to its conservative nature, HE provides the historical phonologist with an invaluable store of archaic patterns of distribution which were once current in Early Modern English but which have since disappeared from standard varieties. Through direct observation of this material it is possible to gain new insights into some of the well-known problematical issues of English historical phonology. One of these, which I take up in Chapter 4, concerns the fate of Middle English (ME) /6: / (as in meat) in Southern Standard English. According to some interpretations, it merged with ME /a: / (as in mate), only to reseparate and undergo merger with ME /e: / (as in meet). Belfast Vernacular is one of several modern dialects in which these vowels remain three-way distinct. Comparative reconstruction of the changes that have produced the current reflexes in these dialects contributes to our understanding of what might have happened to M /ɛ:/ in the Southern Standard. In addition, the results have a bearing on the wider issue of the sorts of strategy that can be : implemented to avoid merger during chain-shifting. In Chapter 5,1 examine the other side of the coin. I identify different ways in which phonological merger is achieved and suggest how these might be modelled in terms of rules and representations. I take up the issue of falsely reported mergers and discuss some of the theoretical and methodological implications. It is a commonly held belief that there is a general trend towards dialect convergence in English as a result of the standardising pressures exerted by universal education and the media. However, recent sociolinguistic work suggests that, while old rural dialects may be in decline, diversification is continuing in recently evolved urban vernaculars (see Labov 1972a: 324; 1980a: 252). A survey of the changes that have affected Belfast Vernacular over the last 120 years or so does indeed confirm that a degree of standardisation has taken place. However, this has been restricted for the most part to the lexical incidence of phonemes. At the phonological level, almost no major structural alignment with Southern Standard English has taken place. Indeed, evidence from change in progress suggests that sane internal innovations are actually moving in directions which run counter to standard norm