Design for reliability applied to RF-MEMS devices and circuits issued from different TRL environments

Ces travaux de thèse visent à aborder la fiabilité des composants RF-MEMS (commutateurs en particulier) pendant la phase de conception en utilisant différents approches de procédés de fabrication. Ça veut dire que l'intérêt est focalisé en comment éliminer ou diminuer pendant la conception les effets des mécanismes de défaillance plus importants au lieu d'étudier la physique des mécanismes. La détection des différents mécanismes de défaillance est analysée en utilisant les performances RF du dispositif et le développement d'un circuit équivalent. Cette nouvelle approche permet à l'utilisateur final savoir comment les performances vont évoluer pendant le cycle de vie. La classification des procédés de fabrication a été faite en utilisant le Technology Readiness Level du procédé qui évalue le niveau de maturité de la technologie. L'analyse de différentes approches de R&D est décrite en mettant l'accent sur les différences entre les niveaux dans la classification TRL. Cette thèse montre quelle est la stratégie optimale pour aborder la fiabilité en démarrant avec un procédé très flexible (LAAS-CNRS comme exemple de baisse TRL), en continuant avec une approche composant (CEA-Leti comme moyenne TRL) et en finissant avec un procédé standard co-intégré CMOS-MEMS (IHP comme haute TRL) dont les modifications sont impossibles.This thesis is intended to deal with reliability of RF-MEMS devices (switches, in particular) from a designer point of view using different fabrication process approaches. This means that the focus will be on how to eliminate or alleviate at the design stage the effects of the most relevant failure mechanisms in each case rather than studying the underlying physics of failure. The detection of the different failure mechanisms are investigated using the RF performance of the device and the developed equivalent circuits. This novel approach allows the end-user to infer the evolution of the device performance versus time going one step further in the Design for Reliability in RF-MEMS. The division of the fabrication process has been done using the Technology Readiness Level of the process. It assesses the maturity of the technology prior to incorporating it into a system or subsystem. An analysis of the different R&D approaches will be presented by highlighting the differences between the different levels in the TRL classification. This thesis pretend to show how reliability can be improved regarding the approach of the fabrication process starting from a very flexible one (LAAS-CNRS as example of low-TRL) passing through a component approach (CEA-Leti as example of medium-TRL) and finishing with a standard co-integrated CMOS-MEMS process (IHP example of high TRL)

Contributions à l’intégration des procédés de fabrication et d'encapsulation d’un commutateur MEMS RF ohmique

Abstract : This dissertation presents studies to resolve process integration problems in the fabrication of packaged radio frequency microelectromechanical system (RF MEMS) ohmic switches with a Au-Ru contact metallurgy and Al-Ge eutectic wafer bonding for wafer-level packaging (WLP). While unpackaged RF MEMS switches have shown promising attributes poor reliability has limited their development into practical products, demanding compatibility with a hermetic sealing solution. The first article, titled ‘Exploring Ru compatibility with Al-Ge eutectic wafer bonding,’ and its supplemental material examine bond impacts associated with the refractory metal ruthenium (Ru). The compatibility of Ru with a wafer bonding process has been virtually unexplored. The main text of this section outlines the results of blanket deposition annealing experiments with Ru, Al and Ge configurations to address concerns of ternary alloy poisoning, melt wettability on Ru, and Ru as a diffusing contaminant in Al and Ge. A brief exploration of the composition process window for Al-Ge alloys contaminated with Ru is made from available phase diagrams, and strong bond outcomes with real product wafers with Ru contacts are presented. The article concludes that Ru has high compatibility within an expected narrow composition process window of marginally reduced melting temperature for Al-Ge alloy. Supplemental material addresses additional process integration problems in the real bond process associated with Ru: alumina thickening, Ru contamination and Al hillock aggravation. These are challenges for the Al surface, which progressively loses bonding ability with Ge through the fabrication process, and can be obviated with unprocessed bonding Al without Ru exposure. The second article, titled ‘Mitigating re-entrant etch profile undercut in Au etch with an aqua regia variant,’ and its supplemental material examine processed Au outcomes and bond-on-contact consequences primarily inflicted on Au. Thermally-stable Au metallization to Si for microswitch contacts in packaged devices is a considerable integration challenge. The main text of this section outlines an etch profile investigation of Au metallization stack variants with adhesion layers to discriminate delamination-based undercutting from galvanic undercutting when using an aqua regia-based solution, showing which mechanism is applicable for this etchant. A brief examination of the electrochemistry of the etchant is made to explain the unusual outcome of mitigated galvanic undercut confirmed by this analysis, with delamination control eliminating or minimizing undercut for thick Au films. In the supplemental material Au surface evolution is tracked across the fabrication process, with the wafer bonding thermal cycle being deemed most significant. Au hillocking and delamination are the primary challenges, and segmentation of Au features is a leading mitigation option that increases the impact of any Au undercut. Together these chapters develop an improved understanding of contact/bond compatibility. Necessary and promising future work for RF MEMS microfabrication and packaging is outlined at the conclusion of this dissertation.Cette thèse présente des études visant à résoudre les problèmes d’intégration de procédés dans la fabrication de commutateurs radiofréquence ohmiques de systèmes microélectromécaniques de (RF MEMS) encapsulés par une métallurgie de contact Au-Ru et un collage eutectique de gaufres Al-Ge pour l'encapsulation au niveau des gaufres (Wafer-Level Packaging, WLP). Bien que les commutateurs MEMS RF non encapsules aient montré des attributs prometteurs, leur faible fiabilité a limité leur développement en produits pratiques, exigeant la compatibilité avec une solution de collage hermétique. Le premier article, intitulé ‹‹Exploring Ru compatibility with Al-Ge eutectic wafer bonding››, et son supplément examinent les effets de liaison associés au ruthénium (Ru), un métal réfractaire. La compatibilité du Ru avec un procédé de collage de gaufres a été très par inexplorée. Le texte principal de cette section présente les résultats d'expériences de recuit des dépôts pleine plaque avec des configurations de Ru, Al et Ge pour répondre aux préoccupations concernant l'empoisonnement des alliages ternaires, la mouillabilité de la masse fondue sur le Ru, et le Ru en tant que contaminant diffusant dans Al et Ge. Une brève exploration de la fenêtre de procédé de composition pour les alliages Al-Ge contaminés par Ru est faite à partir des diagrammes de phase disponibles, et des résultats de collage fort avec des gaufres de produits réels avec des contacts Ru sont présentés. L'article conclut que Ru a une compatibilité élevée dans une fenêtre de procédé de composition étroite attendue de température de fusion marginalement réduite pour l'alliage Al-Ge. Des documents complémentaires traitent de problèmes d'intégration autres dans le procédé de collage réel associés au Ru: épaississement de l'alumine, contamination par le Ru et aggravation de la topographie d'Al. Il s'agit de défis pour la surface de l'aluminium, qui perd progressivement sa capacité de collage avec le Ge au cours du procédé de fabrication, et qui peuvent être évités avec de l'aluminium de collage non traité sans exposition au Ru. Le deuxième article, intitulé ‹‹Mitigating re-entrant etch profile undercut in Au etch with an aqua regia variant››, et son matériel supplémentaire examinent les résultats de la gravure de l'Au et les conséquences de la liaison sur le contact principalement infligées à l'Au. La métallisation thermiquement stable de l'Au sur le Si pour les contacts dans les dispositifs encapsulés est un défi d'intégration considérable. Le texte principal de cette section décrit une étude sur le profil de gravure de variantes d'empilement de métallisation Au avec des couches d'adhérence pour distinguer la sous-coupe basée sur la délamination de la sous-coupe galvanique lors de l'utilisation d'une solution à base d'eau régale, montrant quel mécanisme est applicable pour ce réactif de gravure. Un bref examen de l'électrochimie de l'agent de gravure est effectué pour expliquer le résultat inhabituel de la surgravure galvanique atténuée confirmée par cette analyse, le contrôle de la délamination éliminant ou minimisant la surgravure pour les films d'Au épais. Dans les documents complémentaires, l'évolution de la surface de l'or est suivie tout au long du procédé de fabrication, le cycle thermique de collage des gaufres étant considéré comme le plus important. La formation de bosses et le délaminage de l'or sont les principaux défis à relever, et la segmentation des caractéristiques de l'or est une option d'atténuation importante qui augmente l'impact de toute contre-dépouille de l'or. Ensemble, ces chapitres permettent de mieux comprendre la compatibilité contact/liaison. Les travaux futurs nécessaires et prometteurs pour la microfabrication et le conditionnement des MEMS RF sont présentés en conclusion de cette thèse

A Review of Micro-Contact Physics for Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) Metal Contact Switches

Innovations in relevant micro-contact areas are highlighted, these include, design, contact resistance modeling, contact materials, performance and reliability. For each area the basic theory and relevant innovations are explored. A brief comparison of actuation methods is provided to show why electrostatic actuation is most commonly used by radio frequency microelectromechanical systems designers. An examination of the important characteristics of the contact interface such as modeling and material choice is discussed. Micro-contact resistance models based on plastic, elastic-plastic and elastic deformations are reviewed. Much of the modeling for metal contact micro-switches centers around contact area and surface roughness. Surface roughness and its effect on contact area is stressed when considering micro-contact resistance modeling. Finite element models and various approaches for describing surface roughness are compared. Different contact materials to include gold, gold alloys, carbon nanotubes, composite gold-carbon nanotubes, ruthenium, ruthenium oxide, as well as tungsten have been shown to enhance contact performance and reliability with distinct trade offs for each. Finally, a review of physical and electrical failure modes witnessed by researchers are detailed and examined

Novel Test Fixture for Characterizing Microcontacts: Performance and Reliability

Engineers have attempted to improve reliability and lifecycle performance using novel micro-contact metals, unique mechanical designs and packaging. Contact resistance can evolve over the lifetime of the micro-switch by increasing until failure. This work shows the fabrication of micro-contact support structures and test fixture which allow for micro-contact testing, with an emphasis on the fixture\u27s design to allow the determination and analysis of the appropriate failure mode. The other effort of this investigation is the development of a micro-contact test fixture which can measure contact force and resistance directly and perform initial micro-contact characterization, and two forms of lifecycle testing for micro-contacts at rates up to 3kHz. In this work, two different designs of micro-contact structures are fabricated and tested, with each providing advantages for studying micro-contact physics. After fabrication was refined, three functioning fixed-fixed Au micro-contact support structures with contact radii of 4, 6, and 10 µm and two functioning fixed-fixed Ag micro-contacts were tested using the µN force sensor at cycle rates up to 3 kHz. Comparing the PolyMUMPs micro-contact support structure to the fixed-fixed micro-contact support structure, it was determined that the fixed-fixed micro-contact support structure is the best structure for studying the evolution of micro-contact resistance

Contact Resistance Evolution and Degradation of Highly Cycled Micro-Contacts

Reliable microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) switches are critical for developing high performance radio frequency circuits like phase shifters. Engineers have attempted to improve reliability and lifecycle performance using novel contact metals, unique mechanical designs and packaging. Various test fixtures including: MEMS devices, atomic force microscopes (AFM) and nanoindentors have been used to collect resistance and contact force data. AFM and nanoindentor test fixtures allow direct contact force measurements but are severely limited by low resonance sensors, and therefore low data collection rates. This thesis reports the contact resistance evolution results and fabrication of thin film micro-contacts dynamically tested up to 3kHz. The contacts consisted of a lower contact of evaporated Au and a thin film upper contact, consisting of sputtered Au, Ru or RuO2, with an Au electroplated structural layer. The fixed-fixed beam was designed with sufficient restoring force to overcome adhesion. The hemisphere-upper and planar-lower contacts are mated with a calibrated, external load resulting in approximately 200muN of contact force and are cycled in excess of 10 to the 7th power times or until failure. In addition, Au-Au contact pairs with a hemispherical upper an engineered lower contact were tested. These lower engineered contacts were constructed using gray-scale lithography. Contact resistance was measured, in situ, using Holm\u27s a cross-bar configuration and the entire apparatus was isolated from external vibration and housed in an enclosure to minimize contamination due to the ambient environment. Additionally, contact cycling and data collection are automated using a computer, integrated lab equipment and LabVIEW. Results include contact resistance measurements of Au, Ru and RuO2 samples and lifetime testing up to 323.6 million cycles

Review: Electrostatically actuated nanobeam-based nanoelectromechanical switches – materials solutions and operational conditions

Funding Information: This work was supported by the Latvian Council of Science (project No. 549/2012) and the University of Latvia project No. AAP2016/B043 and No. ZD2010/AZ19. Publisher Copyright: © 2018 Jasulaneca et al.; licensee Beilstein-Institut. License and terms: see end of document.This review summarizes relevant research in the field of electrostatically actuated nanobeam-based nanoelectromechanical (NEM) switches. The main switch architectures and structural elements are briefly described and compared. Investigation methods that allow for exploring coupled electromechanical interactions as well as studies of mechanically or electrically induced effects are covered. An examination of the complex nanocontact behaviour during various stages of the switching cycle is provided. The choice of the switching element and the electrode is addressed from the materials perspective, detailing the benefits and drawbacks for each. An overview of experimentally demonstrated NEM switching devices is provided, and together with their operational parameters, the reliability issues and impact of the operating environment are discussed. Finally, the most common NEM switch failure modes and the physical mechanisms behind them are reviewed and solutions proposed.publishersversionPeer reviewe

From RF-Microsystem Technology to RF-Nanotechnology

The RF microsystem technology is believed to introduce a paradigm switch in the wireless revolution. Although only few companies are to date doing successful business with RF-MEMS, and on a case-by-case basis, important issues need yet to be addressed in order to maximize yield and performance stability and hence, outperform alternative competitive technologies (e.g. ferroelectric, SoS, SOI,…). Namely the behavior instability associated to: 1) internal stresses of the free standing thin layers (metal and/or dielectric) and 2) the mechanical contact degradation, be it ohmic or capacitive, which may occur due to low forces, on small areas, and while handling severe current densities.The investigation and understanding of these complex scenario, has been the core of theoretical and experimental investigations carried out in the framework of the research activity that will be presented here. The reported results encompass activities which go from coupled physics (multiphysics) modeling, to the development of experimental platforms intended to tackles the underlying physics of failure. Several original findings on RF-MEMS reliability in particular with respect to the major failure mechanisms such as dielectric charging, metal contact degradation and thermal induced phenomena have been obtained. The original use of advanced experimental setup (surface scanning microscopy, light interferometer profilometry) has allowed the definition of innovative methodology capable to isolate and separately tackle the different degradation phenomena under arbitrary working conditions. This has finally permitted on the one hand to shed some light on possible optimization (e.g. packaging) conditions, and on the other to explore the limits of microsystem technology down to the nanoscale. At nanoscale indeed many phenomena take place and can be exploited to either enhance conventional functionalities and performances (e.g. miniaturization, speed or frequency) or introduce new ones (e.g. ballistic transport). At nanoscale, moreover, many phenomena exhibit their most interesting properties in the RF spectrum (e.g. micromechanical resonances). Owing to the fact that today’s minimum manufacturable features have sizes comparable with the fundamental technological limits (e.g. surface roughness, metal grain size, …), the next generation of smart systems requires a switching paradigm on how new miniaturized components are conceived and fabricated. In fact endowed by superior electrical and mechanical performances, novel nanostructured materials (e.g. carbon based, as carbon nanotube (CNT) and graphene) may provide an answer to this endeavor. Extensively studied in the DC and in the optical range, the studies engaged in LAAS have been among the first to target microwave and millimiterwave transport properties in carbon-based material paving the way toward RF nanodevices. Preliminary modeling study performed on original test structures have highlighted the possibility to implement novel functionalities such as the coupling between the electromagnetic (RF) and microelectromechanical energy in vibrating CNT (toward the nanoradio) or the high speed detection based on ballistic transport in graphene three-terminal junction (TTJ). At the same time these study have contributed to identify the several challenges still laying ahead such as the development of adequate design and modeling tools (ballistic/diffusive, multiphysics and large scale factor) and practical implementation issues such as the effects of material quality and graphene-metal contact on the electrical transport. These subjects are the focus of presently on-going and future research activities and may represent a cornerstone of future wireless applications from microwave up to the THz range

Carbon nanotube surfaces for low force contact application

This thesis focuses on developing a testing method to estimate the mechanical and electrical characteristics of CNT-based contact surfaces. In particular the use of gold thin films deposited on a CNT forest has potential to offer a very effective contact surface. Two different pieces of experimental apparatus were used in this research to determine the mechanical and electrical properties of gold/multi-walled carbon nanotube (Au/MWCNT) composites: 1) a modified nano-indentation; and 2) a PZT actuator test rig. These apparatuses were used to mimic force-displacement and contact behaviour of the MEMS relay?s contact at a maximum load of 1 mN with dry-circuit and hot-switched conditions. The surfaces were compared with reference Au-Au and Au-MWCNT contact pairs studied under the same experimental conditions. In the modified nano-indentation experiment, tests of up to 10 cycles were performed. The results showed that the Au-MWCNT pair electrical contact resistance improved when the Au-Au/MWCNT pair was used. Additionally the Au-Au/MWCNT pair electrical contact resistance (Rc) was comparable with the Au-Au contact pair. When the Au-Au/MWCNT composite surface is in contact with the Au hemispherical probe it provides a compliant surface. It conforms to the shape of the Au hemispherical probe. For a higher number of cycles, a PZT actuator was used to support Au/MWCNT planar coated surfaces. This surface makes electrical contact with a gold coated hemispherical probe to mimic the actuation of a MEMS relay?s contact at higher actuation frequencies. This apparatus allows the performance of the contact materials to be investigated over large numbers of switching cycles. Different current loads were used in this experiment, 1mA, 10mA, 20mA and 50mA at 4V supply. The Rc of these surfaces was investigated as a function of the applied force under repeated cycles. Under current loads of 1mA and 10mA the Au/MWCNT composite surface provides a stable contact resistance of up to more than a million cycles and no degradation was observed on the surface. Compared with Au-Au contact pair, degradation occurred after 220 cycles. The Au-Au contact pair shows delamination of the Au surface on the probe. The possible reason is the softening or melting of the Au surface. Furthermore, under higher current loads of 20mA to 50mA, degradation had occurred after 50 million cycles (at 20mA) and degradation had occurred at around 45 to 150 cycles for 50mA to 30mA respectively. This is because of the softening or melting of the Au and Au fatigue after a large number of cycles. This study is the first step to show the potential of CNT surfaces as an interface in low force electrical contact applications. With this research, current trends in materials used on contacts and fabrication methods can be explored and even modified or adopted. The use of CNT?s and their composites for contacts can be tested using the available apparatus to look at their performance and reliability in terms of mechanical and electrical properties. This is useful for MEMS contacts that form part of MEMS relay devices