A fundamental work on THz measurement techniques for application to steel manufacturing processes

The terahertz (THz) waves had not been obtained except by a huge system, such as a free electron laser, until an invention of a photo-mixing technique at Bell laboratory in 1984 [1]. The first method using the Auston switch could generate up to 1 THz [2]. After then, as a result of some efforts for extending the frequency limit, a combination of antennas for the generation and the detection reached several THz [3, 4]. This technique has developed, so far, with taking a form of filling up the so-called THz gap . At the same time, a lot of researches have been trying to increase the output power as well [5-7]. In the 1990s, a big advantage in the frequency band was brought by non-linear optical methods [8-11]. The technique led to drastically expand the frequency region and recently to realize a measurement up to 41 THz [12]. On the other hand, some efforts have yielded new generation and detection methods from other approaches, a CW-THz as well as the pulse generation [13-19]. Especially, a THz luminescence and a laser, originated in a research on the Bloch oscillator, are recently generated from a quantum cascade structure, even at an only low temperature of 60 K [20-22]. This research attracts a lot of attention, because it would be a breakthrough for the THz technique to become widespread into industrial area as well as research, in a point of low costs and easier operations. It is naturally thought that a technology of short pulse lasers has helped the THz field to be developed. As a background of an appearance of a stable Ti:sapphire laser and a high power chirped pulse amplification (CPA) laser, instead of a dye laser, a lot of concentration on the techniques of a pulse compression and amplification have been done. [23] Viewed from an application side, the THz technique has come into the limelight as a promising measurement method. A discovery of absorption peaks of a protein and a DNA in the THz region is promoting to put the technique into practice in the field of medicine and pharmaceutical science from several years ago [24-27]. It is also known that some absorption of light polar-molecules exist in the region, therefore, some ideas of gas and water content monitoring in the chemical and the food industries are proposed [28-32]. Furthermore, a lot of reports, such as measurements of carrier distribution in semiconductors, refractive index of a thin film and an object shape as radar, indicate that this technique would have a wide range of application [33-37]. I believe that it is worth challenging to apply it into the steel-making industry, due to its unique advantages. The THz wavelength of 30-300 ¼m can cope with both independence of a surface roughness of steel products and a detection with a sub-millimeter precision, for a remote surface inspection. There is also a possibility that it can measure thickness or dielectric constants of relatively high conductive materials, because of a high permeability against non-polar dielectric materials, short pulse detection and with a high signal-to-noise ratio of 103-5. Furthermore, there is a possibility that it could be applicable to a measurement at high temperature, for less influence by a thermal radiation, compared with the visible and infrared light. These ideas have motivated me to start this THz work

Characteristics of nanocomposites and semiconductor heterostructure wafers using THz spectroscopy

All optical, THz-Time Domain Spectroscopic (THz-TDS) methods were employed towards determining the electrical characteristics of Single Walled Carbon Nanotubes, Ion Implanted Si nanoclusters and Si1-xGex HFO2, SiO2 on p-type Si wafers. For the nanoscale composite materials, Visible Pump/THz Probe spectroscopy measurements were performed after observing that the samples were not sensitive to the THz radiation alone. The results suggest that the photoexcited nanotubes exhibit localized transport due to Lorentz-type photo-induced localized states from 0.2 to 0.7THz. The THz transmission is modeled through the photoexcited layer with an effective dielectric constant described by a Drude + Lorentz model and given by Maxwell-Garnett theory. Comparisons are made with other prevalent theories that describe electronic transport. Similar experiments were repeated for ion-implanted, 3-4nm Si nanoclusters in fused silica for which a similar behavior was observed. In addition, a change in reflection from Si1-xGex on Si, 200mm diameter semiconductor heterostructure wafers with 10% or 15% Ge content, was measured using THz-TDS methods. Drude model is utilized for the transmission/reflection measurements and from the reflection data the mobility of each wafer is estimated. Furthermore, the effect of high-K dielectric material (HfO2) on the electrical properties of p-type silicon wafers was characterized by utilizing non-contact, differential (pump-pump off) spectroscopic methods to differ between HfO2 and SiO2 on Si wafers. The measurements are analyzed in two distinct transmission models, where one is an exact representation of the layered structure for each wafer and the other assumed that the response observed from the differential THz transmission was solely due to effects from interfacial traps between the dielectric layer and the substrate. The latter gave a more accurate picture of the carrier dynamics. From these measurements the effect of interfacial defects on transmission and mobility are quantitatively discussed

Measuring the Terahertz Refractive Index of Boron-Doped Silicon Using a Photoconducting Antenna Terahertz Generator

The frequency range commonly referred to as the terahertz gap occurs between the infrared and microwave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. This range of frequencies is highly suited to investigating the free carrier interactions of materials, as the range is particularly sensitive to these interactions. Using terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS), it is possible to measure the effect these interactions have on a terahertz pulse and, using classical optical techniques, determine the terahertz refractive index of a given material, which is directly related to the free carrier spectrum of said material. Knowing the refractive index of a material in the THz range opens the possibility of future terahertz applications for said material, including a non-destructive dopant testing of silicon. In this work, a series of Silicon on Insulator (SOI) wafer samples are implanted with boron in a range of carrier concentrations. Using a photoconducting antenna (PCA), high-frequency laser pulses were converted to THz pulses and the complex terahertz refractive index of the samples was then measured in the 0.2-2 THz frequency range. This measurement is a direct examination of the free carrier spectrum through experimental methods. The results are compared with the predictions of the Drude model for the free carrier spectrum across this frequency range and are found to closely coincide at higher carrier concentrations, indicating that the behavior of free holes in p-type silicon can likely be described classically at high carrier densities, consistent with previous work on n-type silicon

Prospects for terahertz imaging the human skin cancer with the help of gold-nanoparticles-based terahertz-to-infrared converter

The design is suggested, and possible operation parameters are discussed, of an instrument to inspect a skin cancer tumour in the terahertz (THz) range, transferring the image into the infrared (IR) and making it visible with the help of standard IR camera. The central element of the device is the THz-to-IR converter, a Teflon or silicon film matrix with embedded 8.5 nm diameter gold nanoparticles. The use of external THz source for irradiating the biological tissue sample is presumed. The converter's temporal characteristics enable its performance in a real-time scale. The details of design suited for the operation in transmission mode (in vitro) or on the human skin in reflection mode {in vivo) are specified.Comment: To be published in the proceedings of the FANEM2018 workshop - Minsk, 3-5 June 201

Metrology State-of-the-Art and Challenges in Broadband Phase-Sensitive Terahertz Measurements

The two main modalities for making broadband phase-sensitive measurements at terahertz (THz) frequencies are vector network analyzers (VNA) and time-domain spectrometers (TDS). These measuring instruments have separate and fundamentally different operating principles and methodologies, and they serve very different application spaces. The different architectures give rise to different measurement challenges and metrological solutions. This article reviews these two measurement techniques and discusses the different issues involved in making measurements using these systems. Calibration, verification, and measurement traceability issues are reviewed, along with other major challenges facing these instrument architectures in the years to come. The differences in, and similarities between, the two measurement methods are discussed and analyzed. Finally, the operating principles of electro-optic sampling (EOS) are briefly discussed. This technique has some similarities to TDS and shares application space with the VNA

Silicon based microfluidic cell for terahertz frequencies

We present a detailed analysis of the design, fabrication and testing of a silicon based, microfluidic cell, for transmission terahertz time-domain spectroscopy. The sensitivity of the device is tested through a range of experiments involving primary alcohol/water mixtures. The dielectric properties of these solutions are subsequently extracted using a Nelder–Mead search algorithm, and are in good agreement with literature values obtained via alternative techniques. Quantities in the order of 2 μmol can be easily distinguished for primary alcohols in solution, even with the subwavelength optical path lengths used. A further display of the device sensitivity is shown through the analysis of commercial whiskeys, where there are clear, detectable differences between samples. Slight absorption variations were identified between samples of the same commercial brand, owing to a 2.5% difference in their alcoholic content. Results from data taken on subsequent days after system realignment are also presented, confirming the robustness of the technique, and the data extraction algorithm used. One final experiment, showing the possible use of this device to analyze aqueous biological samples is detailed; where biotin, a molecule known for its specific terahertz absorptions, is analyzed in solution. The device sensitivity is once again displayed, where quantities of 3 nmol can be clearly detected between samples

The Development of Microfluidic and Plasmonic Devices for Terahertz Frequencies

The wealth of opportunities associated with the terahertz (THz) region of the electromagnetic spectrum have only recently, thanks to advances in technology, begun to be fully recognised and exploited. The advent of terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) has led to a wide spectrum of research, spanning chemical, biological and physical systems. However, the relative immaturity of THz techniques results in a variety of inherent problems which limit the potential applications. With an equality existing between the wavelength of THz radiation, and the length scales associated with modern microfabrication techniques, such technology can be exploited to facilitate in finding solutions to these problems. This thesis seeks to address one of these problems, namely the strong absorptions associated with liquid water in the THz region. A simple design idea, that if the optical path length through a fluidic sample were reduced, strong signals could be detected after direct transmission, resulted in a micromachined fluidic cell being devised. The design, fabrication and testing of a microfluidic device inherently transparent to THz radiation, and designed for use in a standard THz-TDS arrangement, is presented. A range of samples, including primary alcohol-water mixtures, commercial whiskies and organic materials are analysed, which, when used in conjunction with data extraction algorithms, allows for accurate dielectric information to be yielded. Further exploitation of micromachining techniques are presented, where a variety of structures, seeking to initiate and utilise a class of surface electromagnetic wave known as surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs), are realised. By flanking a single sub-wavelength aperture with sub-wavelength periodic corrugations, extraordinary optical transmission (EOT) can be observed. This technique allows smaller apertures to be used for THz near-field imaging applications, with a view to increase spatial resolution. The first demonstration of THz near-field imaging using sub-wavelength plasmonic apertures in conjunction with a THz quantum cascade laser source, is presented. Detailed investigations into EOT for the case of two-dimensional, sub-wavelength aperture arrays are documented. A qualitative time-of-flight model describing the transmission properties of these structures is presented, resulting from systematic investigations into a variety of geometrical effects. This model has allowed sharp resonances to be engineered in the frequency domain. A hybrid device featuring a combination of sub-wavelength periodic apertures and corrugations is also investigated. Such a structure is not known to have been described previously in the literature, either in the optical or THz domains. The device demonstrates unparallelled transmission efficiencies, termed `super' EOT. Finally, a device combining the microfluidic technology with the highly resonant SPP structures is presented. This device seeks to exploit the innate dependence of SPPs to a metal-dielectric interface, for use as a sensor. By introducing a range of fluids into the device, the change in the metal-dielectric interface induced a change in the frequency response of the resonant structure. The magnitude of the observed frequency shift can be related back to the dielectric properties of the fluid. This result displays how microfabrication techniques can be successfully exploited to create devices for THz applications, seeking to provide solutions to the inherent problems associated with this part of the electromagnetic spectrum