Effect of fibrolytic enzyme on lactational performance, feeding behavior and digestibility in lactating dairy cows fed a whole plant faba bean silage-based diet

Faba beans (Vicia faba L.) is one of the most widespread and oldest grain legumes in the temperate regions due to its considerable content of protein and starch. The exogenous fibrolytic enzyme for ruminants was applied in order to improve feed efficiency and animal performance. The aim of this project was to evaluate the effects of pre-treating whole plant faba bean silage based- diet with exogenous fibrolytic enzyme in lactational dairy cows and develop an efficiently feeding strategy of whole plant faba bean silage for dairy cows. Statistical analyses were performed using PROC MIXED of SAS 9.4 with significance declared at P< 0.05. Orthogonal polynomial contrast was used to detect linear, quadratic and cubic effect when increased enzyme dosage to treat whole plant faba bean silage. The results obtained from in situ method show that fibrolytic enzyme cubically (P<0.05) affected in situ DMD and quadratically (P=0.01) affected in situ NDFD with increasing level of enzyme application. Both in vitro DM and NDF degradability were quadratically (P<0.01) affected by the increasing dosage of enzyme. Correlation analysis between in situ assay-biological approach and in vitro DaisyII approach showed a strong correlation (R=0.98, P<0.01) on overall DMD and also a satisfactory relationship (R=0.84, P<0.01) on overall NDFD. The washable and potential degradable (W+D) fraction of NDF was linearly (P=0.05) increased by the enzyme treatments. In contrast, undegradable fraction was linearly decreased (P=0.05) with increasing dosage of enzyme. The Kd of NDF in whole plan faba bean silage was cubically (P<0.05) affected by the enzyme. Both rumen bypass (B) and effective degradable (ED) NDF were cubically (P=0.05) affected by fibrolytic enzyme. The response of NDF digestibility and digestible NDF to the increasing level of FETR was linear (P<0.05), where lower enzyme group (0.5 mL of enzyme/kg of TMR DM) exhibited the highest NDF digestibility (48.54%). The enzyme application effects on percentage of milk fat and milk fat yield were linearly (P<0.05) affected by enzyme treatment, with the highest (4.35%, 1.82 kg/d) in low dosage group. The control milk averaged 41.2 kg/d with 4.35 percent fat. Both energy (ECM, P = 0.018<0.05) and fat corrected milk yield (FCM, P=0.058<0.10) were linearly affected or tended to be affected by fibrolytic enezyme dose level. The ECM and FCM production efficiency (kg of ECM or FCM/kg of DMI) cubically (P<0.05) and linearly affected by the enzyme application. Based on the results, it was suggested that the low dosage of enzyme for whole plant faba bean silage at 0.50 mL of enzyme/kg of silage DM has the potential to enhance substrate fermentation thus provides additional energy for animals and improve animal performance

Effect of fibrolytic enzyme on lactational performance, feeding behavior and digestibility in lactating dairy cows fed a whole plant faba bean silage-based diet

Faba beans (Vicia faba L.) is one of the most widespread and oldest grain legumes in the temperate regions due to its considerable content of protein and starch. The exogenous fibrolytic enzyme for ruminants was applied in order to improve feed efficiency and animal performance. The aim of this project was to evaluate the effects of pre-treating whole plant faba bean silage based- diet with exogenous fibrolytic enzyme in lactational dairy cows and develop an efficiently feeding strategy of whole plant faba bean silage for dairy cows. Statistical analyses were performed using PROC MIXED of SAS 9.4 with significance declared at P< 0.05. Orthogonal polynomial contrast was used to detect linear, quadratic and cubic effect when increased enzyme dosage to treat whole plant faba bean silage. The results obtained from in situ method show that fibrolytic enzyme cubically (P<0.05) affected in situ DMD and quadratically (P=0.01) affected in situ NDFD with increasing level of enzyme application. Both in vitro DM and NDF degradability were quadratically (P<0.01) affected by the increasing dosage of enzyme. Correlation analysis between in situ assay-biological approach and in vitro DaisyII approach showed a strong correlation (R=0.98, P<0.01) on overall DMD and also a satisfactory relationship (R=0.84, P<0.01) on overall NDFD. The washable and potential degradable (W+D) fraction of NDF was linearly (P=0.05) increased by the enzyme treatments. In contrast, undegradable fraction was linearly decreased (P=0.05) with increasing dosage of enzyme. The Kd of NDF in whole plan faba bean silage was cubically (P<0.05) affected by the enzyme. Both rumen bypass (B) and effective degradable (ED) NDF were cubically (P=0.05) affected by fibrolytic enzyme. The response of NDF digestibility and digestible NDF to the increasing level of FETR was linear (P<0.05), where lower enzyme group (0.5 mL of enzyme/kg of TMR DM) exhibited the highest NDF digestibility (48.54%). The enzyme application effects on percentage of milk fat and milk fat yield were linearly (P<0.05) affected by enzyme treatment, with the highest (4.35%, 1.82 kg/d) in low dosage group. The control milk averaged 41.2 kg/d with 4.35 percent fat. Both energy (ECM, P = 0.018<0.05) and fat corrected milk yield (FCM, P=0.058<0.10) were linearly affected or tended to be affected by fibrolytic enezyme dose level. The ECM and FCM production efficiency (kg of ECM or FCM/kg of DMI) cubically (P<0.05) and linearly affected by the enzyme application. Based on the results, it was suggested that the low dosage of enzyme for whole plant faba bean silage at 0.50 mL of enzyme/kg of silage DM has the potential to enhance substrate fermentation thus provides additional energy for animals and improve animal performance

Development, Biomass and Nitrogen Allocation, and Seed-Yield Components in Faba Bean (Vicia faba)

Europe has a great demand in plant-protein for food and feed. A high amount of the demand is met by soy import from South America. Europe and Norway aim to become self-sufficient producers in plant-proteins. One of these plant-proteins is faba bean (Vicia faba). Faba bean is rich in proteins (~30 %) and has several environmental benefits by being added to the cropping system: By fixing atmospheric N symbiotically, it can contribute to the reduction of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer, and by being used as a break crop in cereal production, it can reduce the risk of diseases, and improve soil structure and fertility. However, the production increase of faba bean in Norway has been slow. Several reasons have been mentioned, such as the yield instability, the right selection of varieties, and the lack of information about the crops development and yield requirements under Norwegian conditions. This thesis has the aim to contribute information on how different faba bean varieties performed in their development and yield production in Norway in the growing season 2021. The thesis focuses on four topics concerning faba beans: Firstly, phenology, which observes the influence of temperature on the varieties and how temperature affects the yield, as well as observing differences between early and late varieties. Regarding the registration of the development, the two scales BBCH and GRDC are tested and compared. The second topic has its focus on biomass and looks at the question how and where biomass is allocated and how much is accumulated. Nitrogen is at the centre of the third topic, and answers the questions in which plant organs N is mostly allocated and accumulated and how it changes during plant development. The last topic focuses on the seed-yield components, and looks at which extent the variety has an effect on the yield-components and how the previous topics influence the yield. To research these topics two types of experiments, one greenhouse and one field experiment, were conducted at the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU) in Ås. In the greenhouse experiment the effect of temperature was tested on the varieties Lielplatones, Vertigo and Sampo. The results showed that at higher temperatures, varieties required more thermal time for emergence until pod maturity. Vertigo was seemingly the most affected by temperature. It was also seen that higher temperature resulted in less yield (lower number of seeds and pods). The field experiment revealed phenological difference between early (Sampo, Vire, and Louhi) and late (Birgit, Daisy, and Vertigo) varieties. The early varieties needed to sum up less thermal time to reach flowering than the late varieties, and they also reached maturity early by requiring less thermal time. Vertigo started flowering earlier than the other two late varieties but matured at the same time as them. By using the BBCH development scale a more detailed variation between varieties was seen, whereas the GRDC scale gave an overview of earliness. Chlorophyll content, biomass-, and nitrogen accumulation was higher in the late varieties. Over 80 % of N in the varieties derived from the symbiosis with rhizobium bacteria. There were only minimal differences in protein content between varieties, yet it was observed that Sampo had the highest protein content with around 34 %. A seed-yield component analysis showed that thousand seed weight (TSW) and biomass correlated strongly with the seed dry weight (DW). The late varieties had the highest seed yield and of all varieties Vertigo had the highest yield. Sowing density seems to play a significant role in determining biomass and seed yield and needs to be investigated further. The results contribute to new knowledge about physiological aspects related to plant development and yield formation in faba bean when grown under Norwegian climate.M-P

Optimal Seeding Rates and Disease Management for Yield and Quality in Faba bean (Vicia faba L. minor)

Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) production has remained extremely low, compared to pea and lentil, in the Canadian Prairies due to agronomic and economic barriers. These barriers can be overcome, if a consistent, high yielding and high quality faba bean crop is produced annually. This can be achieved by updating the best management practices for the dark brown and black soil zones of Saskatchewan, where faba bean is primarily produced. The objective of the first experiment is to identify the optimal seeding rate required to maximize yield in three faba bean varieties. The objective of the second experiment is to identify the optimal disease control practices required to minimize disease severity, and increase yield and quality, in two faba bean varieties. In the seeding rate experiment, CDC Snowdrop, CDC SSNS-1, and FB9-4 were seeded at 5 different rates between 20 and 100 viable seeds m-2 in 2015 and 2016, and 5 to 60 viable seeds m-2 in 2017. Results indicate that within the black and dark brown soil zones of Saskatchewan, maximum agronomic faba bean yields can be found between 49 and 54 viable seeds m-2, while economic yields can be found at 45 viable seeds m-2. There were no significant differences in the seeding rate required to achieve maximum yields of the three varieties tested. Therefore, results indicate that 50 viable seeds m-2 is required to maximize yield, quality, and profitability for all faba bean varieties and seed sizes cultivated in Saskatchewan. In the disease control experiment, chlorothalonil, fluxapyroxad + pyraclostrobin, fluopyram + prothioconazole, and penthiopyrad fungicides were applied at 10%, 50%, and 10+50% flower, and compared to an untreated control, on CDC Snowdrop and CDC SSNS-1 varieties. Due to the environmental conditions and low disease severity experienced throughout the experimental period, both varieties had minimal responses to fungicide application. Results suggest that all four fungicide products tested, can be equally effective to maintain or improve faba bean yield and quality when disease severity is low. Overall, the results of this thesis can be used to update two components in the set of best management practices for faba bean cultivation in Saskatchewan

MOLECULAR STRUCTURAL AND NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF FABA BEAN PLANTS AS HAY AND SILAGE FOR RUMINANTS: EFFECT OF TANNIN CONCENTRATION, CUTTING STAGE, AND FROST-DAMAGE

As new faba bean varieties are available in western Canada and the production is increasing, there is a possible use of this legume as a fodder. The overall objective of this research was to systematically evaluate whole plant faba bean as hay and silage for dairy cows. The effect of the tannin concentration (high vs. low) and the effect of cutting stages (flower, mid pod, and late pod) were determined. In the first study (Chapter 3), the high tannin SSNS-1 and the low tannin Snowdrop variety were harvested at 77, 88, and 97 days from planting (flower, mid pod, and late pod stages, respectively). The results showed that dry matter (DM) yield and the Feed Milk Value (FMV) of whole plant faba bean hay (artificially air dried) was lower (P< 0.05) at flower stage than at late pod stage (7.68 vs. 12.74 t/ha; 1.35 vs. 1.57 kg milk/kg DM hay, respectively). This study indicates that late pod stage may be the alternative to harvest the whole plant faba bean as the yield and production performance are superior. In the second study (Chapter 4) whole plant faba bean silage was evaluated. The results indicated that the whole plant faba bean silage had a similar protein concentration of 22 %DM in all the cutting stages. Additionally, the DVE and the FMVDVE were lower (P< 0.05) at mid pod stage than at late pod stage (59 vs. 68 g/kg DM and 1.20 vs. 1.37 kg milk/kg DM silage, respectively). This study suggests that at late pod stage the predicted production performance is higher. The third study (Chapter 5) determined the nutritive value of frost damaged whole plant faba bean hay. The results showed that the low tannin frost damaged hay had lower metabolizable protein (MP) (-4 g/kg DM) and lower FMVNRC (-0.09 kg milk/kg DM Hay) than the high tannin frost damaged hay. This study suggests that the nutritive value of frost damaged whole plant faba bean hay is lower than the normal whole plant faba bean hay. The objectives of the third study (Chapter 6) were to carry out dairy production performance and metabolic trials with whole plant faba bean silage from Chapter 4. The inclusion of whole plant faba bean silage in high producing milking cows increased significantly (P< 0.05) the fat corrected milk (3.5% FCM), fat yield and efficiency (FCM/DMI) (56.39 vs. 51.98; 2.11 vs. 1.89 kg/cow/d; and 2.15 vs. 1.91, respectively). This study indicates that the inclusion of whole plant faba bean silage at late pod stage significantly improve the performance of dairy cows. In the fourth study (Chapter 7) an intrinsic molecular structure analysis was performed on whole plant faba bean silage from Chapter 4. The results indicated that the total carbohydrates (TC) area was higher (P 0.74). In conclusion, whole plant faba bean should be harvested at late pod stage to obtain a higher yield, and superior predicted production performance as hay and silage. The inclusion of whole plant faba bean silage at late pod stage in high producing milking cows rations improved the performance. On the other hand, molecular structures of the whole plant faba bean silage were affected by the tannin concentration and by the cutting stage, also some of those structures are correlated to nutrient profiles and metabolic characteristics of the silage and can be used to predict them with good accuracy

Production status and research advancement on root rot disease of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) in China

China is the largest producer of faba bean with a total harvested area of 8.11×105 ha and a total production of 1.69 ×106 tons (dry beans) in 2020, accounting for 30% of the world production. Faba bean is grown in China for both fresh pods and dry seed. East China cultivates large seed cultivars for food processing and fresh vegetables, while northwestern and southwestern China grow cultivars for dry seeds, with an increased production of fresh green pods. Most of the faba bean is consumed domestically, with limited exports. The absence of unified quality control measures and simple traditional cultivation practices contributes to the lower competitiveness of the faba bean industry in international markets. Recently, new cultivation methods have emerged with improved weed control, as well as better water and drainage management, resulting in higher quality and income for producers. Root rot disease in faba bean is caused by multiple pathogens, including Fusarium spp., Rhizoctonia spp., and Pythium spp. Fusarium spp. is the most prevalent species causing root rot in faba bean crops and is responsible for severe yield loss, with different species causing the disease in different regions in China. The yield loss ranges from 5% to 30%, up to 100% in severely infected fields. The management of faba bean root rot disease in China involves a combination of physical, chemical, and bio-control methods, including intercropping with non-host crops, applying rational nitrogen, and treating seeds with chemical or bio-seed treatments. However, the effectiveness of these methods is limited due to the high cost, the broad host range of the pathogens, and potential negative impacts on the environment and non-targeted soil organisms. Intercropping is the most widely utilized and economically friendly control method to date. This review provides an overview of the current status of faba bean production in China, the challenges faced by the industry due to root rot disease, and the progress in identifying and managing this disease. This information is critical for developing integrated management strategies to effectively control root rot in faba bean cultivation and facilitating the high-quality development of the faba bean industry

THE EFFECT OF GENOTYPE AND THE ENVIRONMENT ON THE PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND FUNCTIONAL ATTRIBUTES OF FABA BEAN PROTEIN ISOLATES

The overarching goal of this research was to investigate the differences in the physicochemical and functional properties of protein isolates produced from seven different faba bean genotypes (CDC Fatima, Taboar, SSNS-1, FB9-4, FB18-20, Snowbird and CDC Snowdrop) grown at different locations in Canada (Saskatchewan, Alberta and Manitoba) in 2011 and 2012. The protein isolates were prepared by alkaline extraction (pH 9.5) followed by isoelectric precipitation at pH 4.5. The isolates had an average protein content of ~94% and average protein and isolate yields of ~77% and ~25%, respectively. The physicochemical properties assessed in this study included surface charge/zeta potential (ZP), surface hydrophobicity (SH), and surface and interfacial tension (ST and IT). The functional properties tested included foaming capacity (FC) and foam stability (FS), emulsion capacity (EC) and creaming stability (CS), emulsion activity index (EAI) and emulsion stability index (ESI), oil holding capacity (OHC), and protein solubility. The findings indicated that all physicochemical properties for all isolates were independent of genotype. Overall, an average ZP of + 22.1 mV, SH of 47.2 arbitrary units, and ST and IT of 65.0 mN/m and 10.7 mN/m, respectively, were observed. However, with the exception of ZP considerable differences were observed due to the effect of environment. The ratio of the major globulin protein fractions [legumin:vicilin (L/V)] was found to shift during processing, from 3.8 (range: 3.4-4.6) in the flour to 4.5 (range 4.0-4.9) in the isolates. The L/V ratio for faba bean flour and isolate samples was also found to be independent of genotype. For all genotypes, with the exception of the zero-tannin varieties (Snowbird and CDC Snowdrop), the L/V ratio was affected by the environment. Similar to the physicochemical properties, all functional attributes were found to be independent of genotype. However, environmental effects were observed for all functional properties with the exception of EAI and ESI. Average values for FC of 162.0%, for FS of 65.0%, for EC of 184.0 g/g, for CS of 94.0%, for OHC of 5.7 g/g, for EAI of 13.0 m2/g, for ESI of 10.7 min and for solubility of 81.0% were reported. Zeta potential was observed to be positively correlated with CS (r = 0.46; p<0.05) and FS (r = 0.54; p<0.01), whereas SH and L/V ratio were not. The L/V ratio in the isolate, however, was correlated positively with SH (r = 0.40; p<0.05) and negatively with ZP (r = -0.39; p<0.05). Moreover, the solubility of faba bean isolates was found to be positively correlated with ZP (r = 0.44; p<0.05) and negatively correlated with both IT (r = -0.38; p<0.05) and OHC (r = -0.38; p<0.05). The functional properties of some commercial protein isolates (soy, pea, whey, egg and wheat) were evaluated for comparative purposes. The OHC of the faba bean isolate was found to be higher than that of any of the commercial isolates. With the exception of CS (soy and pea) and FC (egg), all of the emulsifying (EC, EAI and ESI) and foaming (FC and FS) properties of the faba bean protein isolates were comparable to those of soy, pea and egg isolates. In contrast, values for most of the other functional properties were greater for faba bean isolates than for the pea and wheat isolates, but lower than for the whey isolate. For example, the solubility of the protein isolates was observed to decrease in the following order: whey (89.0%) = egg (88.1%) > faba bean (81.0%) > soybean (30.5%) > pea (20.1%) > wheat (10.7%)

Improving the quantity and quality of forages produced from intercopping of faba bean (Vicia faba l.) with forage oats in Lemo District, Hadiya Zone, Ethiopia

Faba bean (Vicia faba L.), also called broad bean or horse bean is an annual crop, which mainly grows in the highlands of Ethiopia for human consumption. The objective of this study was to improve the quantity and quality of forages produced from intercropping of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) with forage oats (Avena sativa L.) on forage biomass, straw, grain yields, and straw quality. Farmers have an experience of not weeding faba bean plots to get more weed biomass. The field trial involved each farmer has 2(10×30) m2 large plots and each plot divided in to (3*10) m2 for two faba bean varieties and three treatment practices The land was selected carefully for uniformity of slope and fertility. Soil was prepared carefully before sowing. Samples were taken from each treatment plots beginning before soil samples from the upper 15 cm to lower 30cm, the final after harvest soil sample from each treatment plot. The highest (P<0.01) tiller count, number of pods per plant (PPP), seeds per pod (SPP) and grain yield was under improved management, whereas the lowest (P<0.01) was obtained from intercropping management practice. The total feed dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP) and metabolizable energy yields were greater (P<0.05) under intercropping than the remaining management practices. Gebelcho under intercropping had the highest CP content (9.53%) and the lowest CP contents were observed for Dosha under traditional management (6.84%). The mean CP content was highest (P<0.05) under intercropping and lowest (P<0.05) in traditional management practice. The NDF content was lower under intercropping than the remaining management practices. In vitro true organic matter digestibility value (%) ranged from 55.9 (Gebelcho) traditional to 65.9 (Dosha) intercropping management practice. In vitro true dry matter digestibility (IVTDMD) value was higher (P<0.05) under intercropping than other management practices. Generally intercropping management gave higher net benefit and particularly intercropping the variety Dossha (41869ETB ha-1) gave highest net benefit as compared to the remaining variety and management practices. It can be concluded that intercropping faba bean with oats could be feasible to provide reasonable nutritive value of forages without or less affecting the faba bean grain yield in the crop-livestock production systems of Ethiopia