Coupled land surface and radiative transfer models for the analysis of passive microwave satellite observations

Soil moisture is one of the key variables controlling the water and energy exchanges between Earth’s surface and the atmosphere. Therefore, remote sensing based soil moisture information has potential applications in many disciplines. Besides numerical weather forecasting and climate research these include agriculture and hydrologic applications like flood and drought forecasting. The first satellite specifically designed to deliver operational soil moisture products, SMOS (Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity), was launched 2009 by the European Space Agency (ESA). SMOS is a passive microwave radiometer working in the L-band of the microwave domain, corresponding to a frequency of roughly 1.4 GHz and relies on a new concept. The microwave radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface is measured as brightness temperatures in several look angles. A radiative transfer model is used in an inversion algorithm to retrieve soil moisture and vegetation optical depth, a measure for the vegetation attenuation of the soil’s microwave emission. For the application of passive microwave remote sensing products a proper validation and uncertainty assessment is essential. As these sensors have typical spatial resolutions in the order of 40 – 50 km, a validation that relies solely on ground measurements is costly and labour intensive. Here, environmental modelling can make a valuable contribution. Therefore the present thesis concentrates on the question which contribution coupled land surface and radiative transfer models can make to the validation and analysis of passive microwave remote sensing products. The objective is to study whether it is possible to explain known problems in the SMOS soil moisture products and to identify potential approaches to improve the data quality. The land surface model PROMET (PRocesses Of Mass and Energy Transfer) and the radiative transfer model L-MEB (L-band microwave emission of the Biosphere) are coupled to simulate land surface states, e.g. temperatures and soil moisture, and the resulting microwave emission. L-MEB is also used in the SMOS soil moisture processor to retrieve soil moisture and vegetation optical depth simultaneously from the measured microwave emission. The study area of this work is the Upper Danube Catchment, located mostly in Southern Germany. Since model validation is essential if model data are to be used as reference, both models are validated on different spatial scales with measurements. The uncertainties of the models are quantified. The root mean squared error between modelled and measured soil moisture at several measuring stations on the point scale is 0.065 m3/m3. On the SMOS scale it is 0.039 m3/m3. The correlation coefficient on the point scale is 0.84. As it is essential for the soil moisture retrieval from passive microwave data that the radiative transfer modelling works under local conditions, the coupled models are used to assess the radiative transfer modelling with L-MEB on the local and SMOS scales in the Upper Danube Catchment. In doing so, the emission characteristics of rape are described for the first time and the soil moisture retrieval abilities of L-MEB are assessed with a newly developed LMEB parameterization. The results show that the radiative transfer modelling works well under most conditions in the study area. The root mean squared error between modelled and airborne measured brightness temperatures on the SMOS scale is less than 6 – 9 K for the different look angles. The coupled models are used to analyse SMOS brightness temperatures and vegetation optical depth data in the Upper Danube Catchment in Southern Germany. Since the SMOS soil moisture products are degraded in Southern Germany and in different other parts of the world these analyses are used to narrow down possible reasons for this. The thorough analysis of SMOS brightness temperatures for the year 2011 reveals that the quality of the measurements is degraded like in the SMOS soil moisture product. This points towards radio frequency interference problems (RFI), that are known, but have not yet been studied thoroughly. This is consistent with the characteristics of the problems observed in the SMOS soil moisture products. In addition to that it is observed that the brightness temperatures in the lower look angles are less reliable. This finding could be used to improve the brightness temperature filtering before the soil moisture retrieval. An analysis of SMOS optical depth data in 2011 reveals that this parameter does not contain valuable information about vegetation. Instead, an unexpected correlation with SMOS soil moisture is found. This points towards problems with the SMOS soil moisture retrieval, possibly under the influence of RFI. The present thesis demonstrates that coupled land surface and radiative transfer models can make a valuable contribution to the validation and analysis of passive microwave remote sensing products. The unique approach of this work incorporates modelling with a high spatial and temporal resolution on different scales. This makes detailed process studies on the local scale as well as analyses of satellite data on the SMOS scale possible. This could be exploited for the validation of future satellite missions, e.g. SMAP (Soil Moisture Active and Passive) which is currently being prepared by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration). Since RFI seems to have a considerable influence on the SMOS data due to the gained insights and the quality of the SMOS products is very good in other parts of the world, the RFI containment and mitigation efforts carried out since the launch of SMOS should be continued

Coupled land surface and radiative transfer models for the analysis of passive microwave satellite observations

Soil moisture is one of the key variables controlling the water and energy exchanges between Earth’s surface and the atmosphere. Therefore, remote sensing based soil moisture information has potential applications in many disciplines. Besides numerical weather forecasting and climate research these include agriculture and hydrologic applications like flood and drought forecasting. The first satellite specifically designed to deliver operational soil moisture products, SMOS (Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity), was launched 2009 by the European Space Agency (ESA). SMOS is a passive microwave radiometer working in the L-band of the microwave domain, corresponding to a frequency of roughly 1.4 GHz and relies on a new concept. The microwave radiation emitted by the Earth’s surface is measured as brightness temperatures in several look angles. A radiative transfer model is used in an inversion algorithm to retrieve soil moisture and vegetation optical depth, a measure for the vegetation attenuation of the soil’s microwave emission. For the application of passive microwave remote sensing products a proper validation and uncertainty assessment is essential. As these sensors have typical spatial resolutions in the order of 40 – 50 km, a validation that relies solely on ground measurements is costly and labour intensive. Here, environmental modelling can make a valuable contribution. Therefore the present thesis concentrates on the question which contribution coupled land surface and radiative transfer models can make to the validation and analysis of passive microwave remote sensing products. The objective is to study whether it is possible to explain known problems in the SMOS soil moisture products and to identify potential approaches to improve the data quality. The land surface model PROMET (PRocesses Of Mass and Energy Transfer) and the radiative transfer model L-MEB (L-band microwave emission of the Biosphere) are coupled to simulate land surface states, e.g. temperatures and soil moisture, and the resulting microwave emission. L-MEB is also used in the SMOS soil moisture processor to retrieve soil moisture and vegetation optical depth simultaneously from the measured microwave emission. The study area of this work is the Upper Danube Catchment, located mostly in Southern Germany. Since model validation is essential if model data are to be used as reference, both models are validated on different spatial scales with measurements. The uncertainties of the models are quantified. The root mean squared error between modelled and measured soil moisture at several measuring stations on the point scale is 0.065 m3/m3. On the SMOS scale it is 0.039 m3/m3. The correlation coefficient on the point scale is 0.84. As it is essential for the soil moisture retrieval from passive microwave data that the radiative transfer modelling works under local conditions, the coupled models are used to assess the radiative transfer modelling with L-MEB on the local and SMOS scales in the Upper Danube Catchment. In doing so, the emission characteristics of rape are described for the first time and the soil moisture retrieval abilities of L-MEB are assessed with a newly developed LMEB parameterization. The results show that the radiative transfer modelling works well under most conditions in the study area. The root mean squared error between modelled and airborne measured brightness temperatures on the SMOS scale is less than 6 – 9 K for the different look angles. The coupled models are used to analyse SMOS brightness temperatures and vegetation optical depth data in the Upper Danube Catchment in Southern Germany. Since the SMOS soil moisture products are degraded in Southern Germany and in different other parts of the world these analyses are used to narrow down possible reasons for this. The thorough analysis of SMOS brightness temperatures for the year 2011 reveals that the quality of the measurements is degraded like in the SMOS soil moisture product. This points towards radio frequency interference problems (RFI), that are known, but have not yet been studied thoroughly. This is consistent with the characteristics of the problems observed in the SMOS soil moisture products. In addition to that it is observed that the brightness temperatures in the lower look angles are less reliable. This finding could be used to improve the brightness temperature filtering before the soil moisture retrieval. An analysis of SMOS optical depth data in 2011 reveals that this parameter does not contain valuable information about vegetation. Instead, an unexpected correlation with SMOS soil moisture is found. This points towards problems with the SMOS soil moisture retrieval, possibly under the influence of RFI. The present thesis demonstrates that coupled land surface and radiative transfer models can make a valuable contribution to the validation and analysis of passive microwave remote sensing products. The unique approach of this work incorporates modelling with a high spatial and temporal resolution on different scales. This makes detailed process studies on the local scale as well as analyses of satellite data on the SMOS scale possible. This could be exploited for the validation of future satellite missions, e.g. SMAP (Soil Moisture Active and Passive) which is currently being prepared by NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration). Since RFI seems to have a considerable influence on the SMOS data due to the gained insights and the quality of the SMOS products is very good in other parts of the world, the RFI containment and mitigation efforts carried out since the launch of SMOS should be continued

Calibration of soil roughness and vegetation parameters in the SMOS retrieval algorithm and validation at local and global scale

La humedad del suelo y SMOS La humedad del suelo es un elemento clave que nos permite conocer los flujos de agua y energía entre el suelo y la atmósfera. Es además un parámetro de interés en aplicaciones hidrológicas y agricultura (Brocca et al., 2010), meteorología (de Rosnay et al., 2013), agricultura y predicción de riesgos naturales. La humedad del suelo en superficie se define como la fracción de agua contenida en un volumen de suelo húmedo, considerando una capa superficial de suelo de unos pocos centímetros (WMO, https://www.wmo-sat.info/oscar/variables/view/149). Puede expresarse de forma gravimétrica o de forma volumétrica. En este estudio se utiliza la relación entre el volumen de agua y el volumen de suelo que la contiene (m3·m-3). Dependiendo de su composición, todo suelo absorbe una cierta cantidad de agua hasta llegar a su punto de saturación. Existe por tanto una relación directa entre la humedad del suelo y su capacidad de infiltración, así como los flujos de calor sensible y humedad de la atmósfera, variables con una gran influencia en los modelos atmosféricos. La humedad del suelo es habitualmente una variable de iniciación de los modelos numéricos de predicción del tiempo (NWP) que permite mejorar su fiabilidad. Una aplicación significativa de la humedad del suelo a escala global es la monitorización de sequías y déficit hídrico en las plantas. El crecimiento y buen estado de la vegetación se relaciona con la cantidad de agua disponible en las raíces de la planta (hasta 1-2 m de profundidad), y esta a su vez, con la humedad superficial del suelo. La productividad de una planta dependerá por tanto de su nivel de estrés hídrico, humedad del suelo y el riesgo de hielo. La medida de la humedad del suelo desde satélite es posible gracias a la sensibilidad de la temperatura de brillo emitida en banda L a la humedad presente en la capa más superficial del suelo (~ 0-3 cm) (Escorihuela et al., 2010; Njoku and Kong, 1977). Esta relación se debe a que la emisividad del suelo en microondas está relacionada con su constante dieléctrica, y esta a su vez con la humedad del suelo. El satélite SMOS (Soil Moisture Ocean Salinity) forma parte de la primera misión cuyo objetivo es la estimación de la humedad del suelo (Kerr et al., 2012) y salinidad del agua en la Tierra (Reul et al., 2014). Su lanzamiento se produjo en Noviembre de 2009 por parte de la Agencia Espacial Europea (ESA) y fue seguido por el lanzamiento en Enero de 2015 de la misión SMAP (Soil Moisture Active Passive) por parte de NASA (Administración Nacional de la Aeronáutica y del Espacio) (Entekhabi et al., 2010), cuyo objetivo principal es la estimación de la humedad del suelo a escala global. La misión SMOS fue un proyecto ideado por la ESA en colaboración con el CDTI (Centro para el Desarrollo Tecnológico Industrial) en España, y el CNES (Centre National d’Études Spatiales) en Francia. El satélite SMOS posee un radiómetro interferométrico en banda L (1400 - 1427 MHz) de doble polarización (Kerr et al., 2001) con una resolución espacial de aproximadamente 43 km. Este radiómetro proporciona medidas multi-angulares y en polarización completa de temperatura de brillo de la Tierra con un periodo de revisita de 3 días. SMOS proporciona no solo medidas de humedad de suelo, sino también de espesor óptico de la vegetación. Este último parámetro se relaciona con ciertas características tales como el contenido en agua de la vegetación o la estructura de la misma (Grant et al., 2016). El modelo L-MEB (L-band Emission of the Biosphere) es la base de los algoritmos de nivel 2 (L2) y 3 (L3) de SMOS (Kerr et al., 2012). En ambos algoritmos, los parámetros del modelo de transferencia radiativa (Mo et al., 1982) relativos a la rugosidad del suelo y la vegetación, se consideran invariables en el tiempo y su valor viene dado por el tipo de cobertura vegetal siguiendo la clasificación de ECOCLIMAP (Masson et al., 2003). Los productos de SMOS se dividen en varios niveles (del 1 al 4). El nivel 1 es el producto primario que corresponde a las medidas de temperatura de brillo realizadas por el radiómetro. Los niveles 2 y 3 ofrecen además del producto de temperatura de brillo, la humedad de suelo y espesor óptico de la vegetación, así como todos los datos auxiliares utilizados en el modelo. Los productos de nivel 2 y 3 están geo-referenciados y usan, respectivamente, la malla ISEA (Icosahedral Synder Equal Area), 4H9 (Talone et al., 2015) y EASE (Equal-Area Scalable Earth) 2.0 (Armstrong et al., 1997). El modelo L-MEB El modelo L-MEB (Wigneron et al., 2007) es la base de los algoritmos L2 y L3 de SMOS, en los cuales se estima la humedad del suelo y el espesor óptico de la vegetación a partir de las observaciones de satélite. L-MEB emplea datos multi-angulares de temperatura de brillo en polarización horizontal (H) y vertical (V) y un modelo iterativo que consiste en la minimización de una función de coste basada en la diferencia entre la temperatura de brillo observada y la simulada, para todos los ángulos disponibles. Esta función tiene también en cuenta la incertidumbre de los parámetros elegidos para su estimación (humedad del suelo y espesor óptico de la vegetación, en el caso de los algoritmos L2 y L3 de SMOS). L-MEB modela la emisión de la capa de suelo cubierta por vegetación, teniendo en cuenta las contribuciones del suelo, la vegetación y la radiación del cielo. El suelo se presenta como una superficie rugosa cubierta de vegetación. La temperatura de brillo simulada para un suelo cubierto de vegetación se expresa como suma de la emisión directa de la vegetación, la emisión del suelo atenuada por la capa vegetal y la emisión de la vegetación que es reflejada por el suelo y atenuada por la vegetación. La relación entre la humedad del suelo y la emisión del suelo vienen dadas por el modelo dieléctrico de Mironov et al. (2012) y las ecuaciones de Fresnel, donde la humedad del suelo y la constante dieléctrica del suelo están relacionadas con la reflectividad de una superficie plana. Los efectos de rugosidad del suelo se consideran mediante una aproximación semi-empírica, mientras que para la modelización de la vegetación se considera el modelo de transferencia radiativa τ-ω (Mo et al., 1982), donde τ es el espesor óptico de la vegetación y ω el albedo de dispersión simple de la vegetación. Parámetros de rugosidad del suelo y vegetación en L-MEB En banda L, la temperatura de brillo es muy sensible a la humedad del suelo, pero existen otros factores que perturban la señal y que deben tenerse en cuenta, tales como la temperatura del suelo y la vegetación (Wigneron et al., 2007), la textura, rugosidad del suelo (Wigneron et al., 2008) y la cubierta vegetal (Grant et al., 2007). El valor efectivo del albedo de dispersión simple tiene en cuenta los efectos de absorción y dispersión debidos a la cubierta vegetal (Kurum, 2013). En los algoritmos L2 y L3 de SMOS, el valor de es 0.06 ó 0.08 en bosques (Kerr et al., 2012) y cero en cubiertas vegetales de escasa vegetación. Este último valor está basado en el análisis de campañas de medidas en banda L (Wigneron et al., 2007) sobre ciertas áreas agrícolas y por lo tanto no es aplicable a todas las clases de vegetación. El estudio de a escala global es reducido y no existe un gran número de referencias al respecto. En el algoritmo de nivel 2 de SMAP, los valores de dependen del tipo de cobertura vegetal, variando de 0 a 0.08 (O’Neill et al., 2012), mientras que el producto de nivel 4 de SMAP proporciona, entre otros parámetros, estimaciones de a escala global (De Lannoy et al., 2014). Otro estudio que trata el parámetro a escala global es Konings et al. (2016), donde se muestra un mapa de valores de ω, con valores entre 0.02 y 0.04 para coberturas vegetales de escasa vegetación y ω = 0.03 – 0.06 en bosques. Por su parte, el estudio de Van Der Schalie et al. (2016) establece ω = 0.12 como el valor más representativo a escala global tras aplicar el algoritmo LPRM (Land Parameter Retrieval Model) sobre las observaciones de SMOS y comparando el resultado de humedad del suelo con diferentes modelos. Otros parámetros que caracterizan la vegetación en el algoritmo L-MEB son ttV and ttH. Estos parámetros cuantifican la influencia del ángulo de incidencia en el espesor óptico de la vegetación. Un estudio detallado de estos parámetros fue llevado a cabo por Schwank et al. (2012) en la Valencia Anchor Station demostrando que existen variaciones importantes en los valores de ttp (p = H, V) entre verano e invierno y también entre las polarizaciones vertical y horizontal. Sin embargo, a escala global estos parámetros son difíciles de estimar debido a la complejidad de los efectos del tronco de la planta, tallos, hojas y ramas, cuya orientación es altamente aleatoria. El valor de ttP en los algoritmos L2 y L3 de SMOS es invariable e igual a 1, suponiendo que la vegetación es isotrópica. Un valor de ttP > 1 o ttP < 1 supone asumir una distribución anisotrópica de la vegetación y conlleva, respectivamente, un incremento o un decremento de τ_P en función de θ. Para tener en cuenta los efectos de la rugosidad del suelo, los algoritmos L2 y L3 de SMOS incluyen cuatro parámetros (HR, QR, NRH and NRV) (Wigneron et al., 2007). El parámetro HR tiene en cuenta la disminución en la reflectividad del suelo debida a los efectos de rugosidad; QR parametriza los efectos de la polarización (mayor o menor influencia) y NRp (p = H, V) la dependencia de la reflectividad con el ángulo de incidencia. En ambos algoritmos (L2 and L3 de SMOS), el valor de QR se supone igual a cero de manera global, mientras que a NRH y NRV se les asignan los valores 2 y 0, respectivamente. Por su parte, los valores de HR vienen definidos en función de la clasificación de usos del suelo ECOCLIMAP, siendo HR = 0.3 en bosque y HR = 0.1 en el resto de suelos (Kerr et al., 2012). En el algoritmo de humedad del suelo de SMAP L2, el valor de HR es diferente según la clasificación IGBP (International Geosphere-Biosphere), mientras que NRp = 2 (p = H, V). A escala local, existen algunas referencias sobre el valor de los parámetros de rugosidad. Como ejemplo, el estudio de Wigneron et al. (2007) arroja valores de HR = 0.1 - 0.2 para cultivos de soja y trigo y ~ 0.7 para campos de maíz. En España, el estudio de Cano et al. (2010) estima el valor de HR ~ 0.35 sobre la vegetación de matorral mediterráneo, mientras que el parámetro QR se analiza en Lawrence et al. (2013), concluyendo que QR = 0 es un valor generalizable en ausencia de condiciones de rugosidad extremas. En lo que respecta a los parámetros NRH y NRV, Escorihuela et al. (2007) y Lawrence et al. (2013) proponen una diferencia de NRH – NRV ~ 2 para superficies de poco relieve y (~ 1 – 1.5) para suelos rugosos.The capability of L-band radiometry to monitor surface soil moisture (SM) at global scale has been analyzed in numerous studies, mostly in the framework of the Soil Moisture Ocean Salinity (SMOS) and near future SMAP (Soil Moisture Active Passive) space borne missions. While the soil moisture of the first centimeters of the soil surface (~3 cm) is strongly related to the Brightness Temperature (TB) measurements, other parameters must be accounted for in order to produce accurate estimations of SM. To retrieve SM from L-band radiometric observations, two significant effects have to be accounted for: soil roughness and vegetation. In the first part of this thesis, the effects of soil roughness on retrieved SM values were evaluated using in-situ observations acquired by the L-band ELBARA-II radiometer, over a vineyard field at the Valencia Anchor Station (VAS) site during the year 2013. In the SMOS algorithm, L-MEB (L-band Microwave Emission of the Biosphere) is the forward model. Different combinations of the values of the model parameters used to account for soil roughness effects (HR, QR, NRH and NRV) were evaluated. The evaluations were made by comparing in-situ measurements of SM (used here as a reference) against SM retrievals derived from tower-based ELBARA-II brightness temperatures. The general retrieval approach consists of the inversion of L-MEB. Two specific configurations were tested: the classical 2-Parameter (2-P) retrieval configuration [where SM and τ_NAD (vegetation optical depth at nadir) were retrieved] and a 3-Parameter (3-P) configuration, accounting for the additional effects of the vineyard vegetation structure. Using the 2-P configuration, it was found that setting NRP (P = H or V) equal to -1 produced the best SM estimations in terms of correlation and unbiased Root Mean Square Error (ubRMSE). The assumption NRV = NRH = -1 leads to a simplification in L-MEB, since the two parameters τ_NAD and HR can be grouped and retrieved as a single parameter (method defined here as the Simplified Retrieval Method (SRP)). A main advantage of the SRP method is that it is not necessary to calibrate the value of HR before performing SM retrievals. Using the 3-P configuration, improved results were obtained in the SM retrievals in terms of correlation and ubRMSE. Finally, it was found that the use of in-situ roughness measurements to calibrate the values of the roughness model parameters did not provide significant improvements in the SM retrievals in comparison with the SRP method. The second part of the thesis focuses on the calibration of the effective vegetation scattering albedo (ω) and surface soil roughness parameters in the SM retrieval at global scale. In the current SMOS Level 2 (L2) and Level 3 (L3) retrieval algorithms, low vegetated areas are parameterized by ω = 0 and HR = 0.1, whereas values of ω = 0.06 - 0.08 and HR = 0.3 are used for forests. Several parameterizations of the vegetation and soil roughness parameters (ω, HR and NRp, p = H, V) were tested. In addition, the inversion approach was simplified by considering the SMOS pixels as homogeneous instead of retrieving SM only over a fraction of the pixel (excluding forested areas), as implemented in the operational SMOS L2 and L3 algorithms. Globally-constant values of ω = 0.10, HR = 0.4 and NRp = -1 (p = H, V) were found to yield SM retrievals that compared best with in situ SM data measured at many sites worldwide from the International Soil Moisture Network (ISMN). The calibration was repeated for collections of in situ sites classified in different land cover categories based on the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) scheme. Depending on the IGBP land cover class, values of ω and HR varied, respectively, in the range 0.08 - 0.12 and 0.1 - 0.5. A validation exercise based on in situ measurements confirmed that using either a global or an IGBP-based calibration, there was an improvement in the accuracy of the SM retrievals compared to the SMOS L3 SM product considering all statistical metrics. This result is a key step in the calibration of the roughness and vegetation parameters of future versions of the operational SMOS retrieval algorithm. This result was also at the base of the development of the so-called SMOS-INRA-CESBIO (SMOS-IC) product. The SMOS-IC product provides daily values of the SM and τ_NAD parameters at the global scale and differs from the operational SMOS Level 3 (SMOSL3) product in the treatment of retrievals over heterogeneous pixels. SMOS-IC is much simpler and does not account for corrections associated to the antenna pattern and the complex SMOS viewing angle geometry. It considers pixels as homogeneous to avoid uncertainties and errors linked to inconsistent auxiliary data sets which are used to characterize the pixel heterogeneity in the SMOS L3 algorithm. SMOS-IC also differs from the current SMOSL3 product (Version 300, V300) in the values of the effective vegetation scattering albedo (ω) and soil roughness parameters. An inter-comparison of the SMOS-IC and SMO3L3 products (V300) is presented in this thesis based on the use of ECMWF (European Center for Medium range Weather Forecasting) SM and NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) from MODIS (Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer). A 6 year (2010-2015) inter-comparison of the two SMOS products (SMOS-IC and SMOSL3 SM (V300)) with ECMWF SM yielded higher correlations and lower ubRMSD (unbiased root mean square difference) for SMOS-IC over most of the pixels. In terms of τ_NAD, SMOS-IC was found to be better correlated to MODIS NDVI in most regions of the globe, with the exception of the Amazonian basin and of the northern mid-latitudes. The SMOS-IC VOD product is now extensively used in applications analyzing the impact of droughts on vegetation carbon budgets/biomass at continental scales

A bare ground evaporation revision in the ECMWF land-surface scheme: evaluation of its impact using ground soil moisture and satellite microwave data

In situ soil moisture data from 122 stations across the United States are used to evaluate the impact of a new bare ground evaporation formulation at ECMWF. In November 2010, the bare ground evaporation used in ECMWF's operational Integrated Forecasting System (IFS) was enhanced by adopting a lower stress threshold than for the vegetation, allowing a higher evaporation. It results in more realistic soil moisture values when compared to in situ data, particularly over dry areas. Use was made of the operational IFS and offline experiments for the evaluation. The latter are based on a fixed version of the IFS and make it possible to assess the impact of a single modification, while the operational analysis is based on a continuous effort to improve the analysis and modelling systems, resulting in frequent updates (a few times a year). Considering the field sites with a fraction of bare ground greater than 0.2, the root mean square difference (RMSD) of soil moisture is shown to decrease from 0.118 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; m&lt;sup&gt;−3&lt;/sup&gt; to 0.087 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; m&lt;sup&gt;−3&lt;/sup&gt; when using the new formulation in offline experiments, and from 0.110 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; m&lt;sup&gt;−3&lt;/sup&gt; to 0.088 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; m&lt;sup&gt;−3&lt;/sup&gt; in operations. It also improves correlations. Additionally, the impact of the new formulation on the terrestrial microwave emission at a global scale is investigated. Realistic and dynamically consistent fields of brightness temperature as a function of the land surface conditions are required for the assimilation of the SMOS data. Brightness temperature simulated from surface fields from two offline experiments with the Community Microwave Emission Modelling (CMEM) platform present monthly mean differences up to 7 K. Offline experiments with the new formulation present drier soil moisture, hence simulated brightness temperature with its surface fields are larger. They are also closer to SMOS remotely sensed brightness temperature

Sensitivity analysis and calibration of multi energy balance land surface model parameters

Flows of energy between the atmosphere, the oceans and the land surfaces drive weather and climate on Earth. Increased understanding of these processes is crucial to successfully predict and address the challenges of climate change. Land surface models (LSM) are mathematical models designed to mimic natural processes and evolution of land surfaces with the basic task to simulate surface-atmosphere energy flows. Within the SURFace EXternalisée modeling platform (SURFEX), developed by Météo-France and a suite of international partners, a new LSM called the Interaction Soil Biosphere Atmosphere model - Multi Energy Balance (ISBA-MEB) has been developed. There are however still uncertainties in how to accurately prescribe model parameters used to numerically define the physiography and natural processes of modelled land surfaces which consequently results in uncertainties in modelled outputs. In the present study, Quasi-Monte Carlo simulations based on Sobol sensitivity analysis was applied to explore the uncertainty contribution of individual parameters to modelled surface-atmosphere turbulent sensible and latent heat fluxes in forest environments. Those parameters to which modelled fluxes were identified as significantly sensitive were then calibrated by generating multiple sets of parameter values with the Latin Hypercube sampling technique on which the model was run to identify what parameter values generated the least amount of model output bias and to evaluate how much model output uncertainty could be reduced. To explore variations in parameter sensitivity and optimal parameter prescriptions between forest environments, four separate forest areas with varying vegetation types and climate classifications were modelled. Results disclose that the level of uncertainty contribution of individual parameters varies between forest environments. Three parameters were however identified to contribute with significantly output uncertainty; 1) the ration between roughness length of momentum and thermal roughness length, 2) the heat capacity of vegetation and soil and 3) the leaf orientation at canopy bottom. Calibrating these parameters marginally reduced model output uncertainty at all study areas.Jorden tar emot ett konstant flöde av energi via solinstrålning som sedan cirkulerar mellan atmosfären, haven och markytan innan den slutligen strålas ut i rymden. Dessa energiflöden är bränslet som driver planetens väder- och klimatfenomen och det vetenskapliga samfundet efterfrågar ökad kunskap om detta system för att utmaningarna med klimatförändringar ska kunna förutspås och hanteras. En grundläggande komponent i klimatsystemet är markytans energiutbyte med atmosfären. Hur stora dessa energiflöden är och i vilken form som energin transporteras avgörs av väderförhållanden och markens fysiska egenskaper. Inom exempelvis meteorologi och hydrologi simuleras dessa processer med hjälp av Markytamodeller. I ett internationellt samarbete med utgångspunkt i Frankrikes meteorologiska institut Météo France har en ny Markytamodell för simulering av naturmiljöer utvecklats. Denna modell möjliggör en mer detaljerad beskrivning av markytans fysiska komponenter, så som karaktären på jord och vegetation, än sina förgångare. Markytamodeller är matematiska och lanskapets karaktär beskrivs därför numeriska parametrar. I nuläget råder det osäkerhet kring hur vissa av dessa parametrar bäst definieras i olika skogstyper. Eftersom markytans olika fysiska komponenter har olika inflytande på energiflöden har även Markytamodellers parmetrar olika inflytande på simuleringen av dessa energiflöden. Detta uttrycks även som att modellen är olika känslig för olika parametrar. Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka hur känslig den nya Markmodellen är för olika vegetationsparametrar i olika skogsmiljöer. Vidare var syftet att undersöka hur mycket simuleringar kan förbättras genom att finna det optimala värdet på de mest känsliga parametrarna i respektive skogsområde. Skillnader i parameterkänslighet och optimala parametervärden för fyra olika skogsmiljöer identifierades med så kallade Monte-Carlo simuleringar. Kortfattat innebar detta att skogsmiljöerna modellerades upprepade gånger med olika parametervärden. Slutsatserna är att parameterkänsligheten varierar mellan de inkluderade skogsområdena, men att modellen är mycket känsliga för tre av de analyserade parametrarna. Genom att identifiera optimala värden för dessa mycket känsliga parametrar i respektive skogsmiljö kunde mer realistiska simuleringar av energiflöden uppnås

Assessment of SMOS Soil Moisture Retrieval Parameters Using Tau-Omega Algorithms for Soil Moisture Deficit Estimation

Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) is the latest mission which provides flow of coarse resolution soil moisture data for land applications. However, the efficient retrieval of soil moisture for hydrological applications depends on optimally choosing the soil and vegetation parameters. The first stage of this work involves the evaluation of SMOS Level 2 products and then several approaches for soil moisture retrieval from SMOS brightness temperature are performed to estimate Soil Moisture Deficit (SMD). The most widely applied algorithm i.e. Single channel algorithm (SCA), based on tau-omega is used in this study for the soil moisture retrieval. In tau-omega, the soil moisture is retrieved using the Horizontal (H) polarisation following Hallikainen dielectric model, roughness parameters, Fresnel's equation and estimated Vegetation Optical Depth (tau). The roughness parameters are empirically calibrated using the numerical optimization techniques. Further to explore the improvement in retrieval models, modifications have been incorporated in the algorithms with respect to the sources of the parameters, which include effective temperatures derived from the European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) downscaled using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF)-NOAH Land Surface Model and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) land surface temperature (LST) while the s is derived from MODIS Leaf Area Index (LAI). All the evaluations are performed against SMD, which is estimated using the Probability Distributed Model following a careful calibration and validation integrated with sensitivity and uncertainty analysis. The performance obtained after all those changes indicate that SCA-H using WRF-NOAH LSM downscaled ECMWF LST produces an improved performance for SMD estimation at a catchment scale

Impact of climate and anthropogenic effects on the energy, water, and carbon budgets of monitored agrosystems: multi-site analysis combining modelling and experimentation

Les terres cultivées représentent une unité importante dans le climat mondial, et en réponse à la population, elles sont en expansion. Il est crucial de comprendre et de quantifier les interactions terre-atmosphère via les échanges d'eau, d'énergie et de carbone. Dans ce contexte, cette thèse a consisté à étudier la variabilité du bilan énergétique en fonction de différentes cultures, phénologies et pratiques agricoles via système Eddy-Covariance. En réponse au manque d'eau dans le sud-ouest de la France, deux modèles de surface (ISBA et ISBA-MEB) ont été évalués sur deux cultures (blé et maïs) pour évaluer leur capacité à estimer les flux d'énergie et d'eau. Enfin, en réponse à la contribution des terres cultivées à l'augmentation du dioxyde de carbone atmosphérique, la capacité du modèle ISBA-MEB à simuler correctement les principaux composants du carbone a été testée sur 11 saisons de maïs et de blé.Croplands represent an important unit within the global climate, and in response to population, they are expanding. Hence, understanding and quantifying the land-atmosphere interactions via water, energy and carbon exchanges is crucial. In this context, the first objective of this thesis studied the variability of the energy balance over different crops, phenologies, and farm practices at Lamasquère and Auradé. Secondly, in response to water scarcity and increasing drought in southwestern France, two land surface models (ISBA and ISBA-MEB) of different configurations were evaluated over some wheat and maize years to test their ability to estimate energy and water fluxes using measurements from an eddy covariance system as reference. Finally, in response to the contribution of croplands to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide, the capability of the ISBA-MEB model to correctly simulate the major carbon components was tested over 11 seasons of maize and wheat