PASSIVE MICROWAVE SATELLITE SNOW OBSERVATIONS FOR HYDROLOGIC APPLICATIONS

Melting snow provides an essential source of water in many regions of the world and can also contribute to devastating, wide-scale flooding. The objective of this research was to investigate the potential for passive microwave remotely sensed data to characterize snow water equivalent (SWE) and snowmelt across diverse regions and snow regimes to improve snowmelt runoff estimation. The first step was to evaluate the current, empirically-based passive microwave SWE products compared to NOAA’s operational SWE estimates from SNODAS across 2100 watersheds over eight years. The best agreement was found within basins in which maximum annual SWE is less than 200 mm, and forest fraction is less than 20%. Next, a sensitivity analysis was conducted to evaluate the microwave signal response to spatially distributed wet snow using a loosely-coupled snow-emission model. The results over an area approximately the size of a microwave pixel found a near-linear relationship between the microwave signal response and the percent area with wet snow present. These results were confirmed by evaluating actual wet snow events over a nine year period, and suggest that the microwave response provides the potential basis for disaggregating melting snow within a microwave pixel. Finally, a similar sensitivity analysis conducted in six watersheds with diverse landscapes and snow conditions confirmed the relationship holds at a basin scale. The magnitude of the microwave response to wet snow was compared to the magnitude of subsequent discharge events to determine if an empirical relation exists. While positive increases in brightness temperature (TB) correspond to positive increases in discharge, the magnitude of those changes is poorly correlated in most basins. The exception is in basins where snowmelt runoff typically occurs in one event each spring. In similar basins, the microwave response may provide information on the magnitude of spring runoff. Methods to use these findings to improve current snow and snow melt estimation as well as future research direction are discussed

Développement d’un système d’assimilation de mesures satellites micro-ondes passives dans un modèle de neige pour la prévision hydrologique au Québec

Dans le contexte québécois (Est du Canada), une bonne gestion de la ressource en eau est devenue un enjeu économique majeur et permet également d’éviter d’importantes catastrophes naturelles lors des crues printanières. La plus grande incertitude des modèles de prévision hydrologique résulte de la méconnaissance de la quantité de neige au sol accumulée durant l’hiver. Pour optimiser la gestion de ses barrages hydroélectriques, l'entreprise Hydro-Québec veut pouvoir mieux quantifier et anticiper l'apport en eau que représentera la fonte des neiges au printemps. Cet apport est estimé à partir de l’équivalent en eau de la neige (‘ÉEN’, ou Snow Water Equivalent, ‘SWE’) extrapolé sur l’ensemble d’un territoire. Cette étude se concentre sur la zone subarctique et boréale du Québec (58° - 45°N) incluant les bassins hydrographiques du complexe de la Baie James et du sud du Québec. Ces territoires représentent des régions immenses et hétérogènes difficiles d’accès. Le faible nombre de stations météorologiques permanentes et de relevés nivométriques entrainent de fortes incertitudes dans l’extrapolation de l’équivalent en eau de la neige, que ce soit à partir de mesures au sol ou de modèles de neige pilotés par des forçages météorologiques. La couverture quasi - quotidienne et globale des observations satellitaires est donc une source d’information au potentiel certain, mais encore peu utilisée pour ajuster les estimations de l’ÉEN dans les modèles hydrologiques. Utilisant les observations satellitaires micro-ondes passives (MOP) et des mesures de hauteurs de neige au sol pour ajuster les cartes de neige interpolées, le produit ÉEN GlobSnow2 est actuellement considéré comme un des plus performants à l’échelle globale. En comparant ce produit à une série temporelle de 30 ans de données au sol sur l’Est du Canada (1980 – 2009, avec un total de 38 990 mesures d’ÉEN), nous avons montré que sa précision n'était pas adaptée pour les besoins d'Hydro-Québec, avec une erreur quadratique moyenne (RMSE) relative de l'ordre de 36%. Une partie des incertitudes provient de la non représentativité des mesures de hauteur de neige au sol. Ce travail de thèse s'est donc concentré sur l'amélioration de la prédiction du couvert nival au Québec par l’assimilation des observations satellitaires MOP sans utilisation de relevés au sol. Les observations, décrites comme des températures de brillance (TB), sont fournies par les radiomètres AMSR-2 (Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer – 2) embarqués sur le satellite Jaxa (10 x 10 km2). L’approche développée propose de coupler un modèle de neige (Crocus de Météo-France) avec un modèle de transfert radiatif (DMRT-ML du LGGE, Grenoble) pour simuler l’émission du manteau neigeux modélisé. Des modèles de transfert radiatifs de végétation, de sol et d’atmosphère sont ajoutés et calibrés pour représenter le signal MOP au niveau des capteurs satellitaires. Les observations MOP d’AMSR-2 sont alors assimilées en réajustant directement les forçages atmosphériques pilotant le modèle de neige. Ces forçages sont dérivés du modèle de prévision atmosphérique canadien GEM à 10 km de résolution spatiale. Le système d’assimilation implémenté est un filtre particulaire par rééchantillonnage d’importance. La chaîne de modèles a été calibrée et validée avec des mesures au sol de radiométrie micro-onde et des relevés continus d’ÉEN et de hauteurs de neige. L’assimilation des TB montre d'excellents résultats avec des observations synthétiques simulées, améliorant la RMSE sur l’ÉEN de 82% comparé aux simulations d’ÉEN sans assimilation. Les experiences préliminaires de l’assimilation des observations satellitaires d’AMSR-2 en 11, 19 et 37 GHz (verticale polarization) montrent une amélioration significative des biais sur les ÉEN simulés sur un important jeu de données ponctuelles (12 stations de mesures d’ÉEN continues sur 4 années). La moyenne des biais inversés des valeurs d’ÉEN moyens et maximums sont réduits respectivement de 71 % et 32 % par rapport aux simulations d’ÉEN sans assimilation. Avec l’assimilation des observations d’AMSR-2 et pour les sites avec moins de 75 % de couverts forestiers, le pourcentage d'erreur relative sur l’ÉEN par rapport aux observations est de 15 % (contre 20 % sans assimilation), soit une précision significativement améliorée pour des applications hydrologiques. Ce travail ouvre de nouvelles perspectives très prometteuses pour la cartographie d’ÉEN à des fins hydrologiques sur une base journalière

An Investigation into the Effects of Variable Lake Ice Properties on Passive and Active Microwave Measurements Over Tundra Lakes Near Inuvik, N.W.T.

The accurate estimation of snow water equivalent (SWE) in the Canadian sub-arctic is integral to climate variability studies and water availability forecasts for economic considerations (drinking water, hydroelectric power generation). Common passive microwave (PM) snow water equivalent (SWE) algorithms that utilize the differences in brightness temperature (Tb) at 37 GHz – 19 GHz falter in lake-rich tundra environments because of the inclusion of lakes within PM pixels. The overarching goal of this research was to investigate the use of multiple platforms and methodologies to observe and quantify the effects of lake ice and sub-ice water on passive microwave emission for the purpose of improving snow water equivalent (SWE) retrieval algorithms. Using in situ snow and ice measurements as input, the Helsinki University of Technology (HUT) multi-layer snow emission model was modified to include an ice layer below the snow layer. Emission for 6.9, 19, 37 and 89 GHz were simulated at horizontal and vertical polarizations, and were validated by high resolution airborne passive microwave measurements coincident with in situ sampling sites over two lakes near Inuvik, Northwest Territories (NWT). Overall, the general magnitude of brightness temperatures were estimated by the HUT model for 6.9 and 19 GHz H/V, however the variability was not. Simulations produced at 37 GHz exhibited the best agreement relative to observed temperatures. However, emission at 37 GHz does not interact with the radiometrically cold water, indicating that ice properties controlling microwave emission are not fully captured by the HUT model. Alternatively, active microwave synthetic aperture radar (SAR) measurements can be used to identify ice properties that affect passive microwave emission. Dual polarized X-band SAR backscatter was utilized to identify ice types by the segmentation program MAGIC (MAp Guided Ice Classification). Airborne passive microwave transects were grouped by ice type classes and compared to backscatter measurements. In freshwater, where there were few areas of high bubble concentration at the ice/water interface Tbs exhibited positive correlations with cross-polarized backscatter, corresponding to ice types (from low to high emission/backscatter: clear ice, transition zone between clear and grey ice, grey ice and rafted ice). SWE algorithms were applied to emission within each ice type producing negative or near zero values in areas of low 19 GHz Tbs (clear ice, transition zone), but also produced positive values that were closer to the range of in situ measurements in areas of high 19 GHz Tbs (grey and rafted ice). Therefore, cross-polarized X-band SAR measurements can be used as a priori ice type information for spaceborne PM algorithms, providing information on ice types and ice characteristics (floating, frozen to bed), integral to future tundra-specific SWE retrieval algorithms

Microwave Indices from Active and Passive Sensors for Remote Sensing Applications

Past research has comprehensively assessed the capabilities of satellite sensors operating at microwave frequencies, both active (SAR, scatterometers) and passive (radiometers), for the remote sensing of Earth’s surface. Besides brightness temperature and backscattering coefficient, microwave indices, defined as a combination of data collected at different frequencies and polarizations, revealed a good sensitivity to hydrological cycle parameters such as surface soil moisture, vegetation water content, and snow depth and its water equivalent. The differences between microwave backscattering and emission at more frequencies and polarizations have been well established in relation to these parameters, enabling operational retrieval algorithms based on microwave indices to be developed. This Special Issue aims at providing an overview of microwave signal capabilities in estimating the main land parameters of the hydrological cycle, e.g., soil moisture, vegetation water content, and snow water equivalent, on both local and global scales, with a particular focus on the applications of microwave indices

Downscaling Coarse Resolution Satellite Passive Microwave SWE Estimates

The spatio-temporal heterogeneity of seasonal snow and its impact on socio-economic and environmental functionality make accurate, real-time estimates of snow water equivalent (SWE) important for hydrological and climatological predictions. Passive microwave remote sensing offers a cost effective, temporally and spatially consistent approach to SWE monitoring at the global to regional scale. However, local scale estimates are subject to large errors given the coarse spatial resolution of passive microwave observations (25 x 25 km). Regression downscaling techniques can be implemented to increase the spatial resolution of gridded datasets with the use of related auxiliary datasets at a finer spatial resolution. These techniques have been successfully implemented to remote sensing datasets such as soil moisture estimates, however, limited work has applied such techniques to snow-related datasets. This thesis focuses on assessing the feasibility of using regression downscaling to increase the spatial resolution of the European Space Agency’s (ESA) Globsnow SWE product in the Red River basin, an agriculturally important region of the northern United States that is widely recognized as a suitable location for passive microwave remote sensing research. Multiple Linear (MLR), Random Forest (RFR) and Geographically Weighted (GWR) regression downscaling techniques were assessed in a closed loop experiment using Snow Data Assimilation System (SNODAS) SWE estimates at a 1 x 1 km spatial resolution. SNODAS SWE data for a 5-year period between 2013-2018 was aggregated to a 25 x 25 km spatial resolution to match Globsnow. The three regression techniques were applied using correlative datasets to downscale the aggregated SNODAS data back to the original 1 x 1 km spatial resolution. By comparing the downscaled SNODAS estimates to the original SNODAS data, it was found that RFR downscaling produced much less variation in downscaled results, and lower RMSE values throughout the study period when compared to MLR and GWR downscaling techniques, indicating it was the optimal downscaling method. RFR downscaling was then implemented on daily Globsnow SWE estimates for the same time period. The downscaled SWE results were evaluated using SNODAS SWE as well as in situ derived SWE estimates from weather stations within the study region. Spatial and temporal errors were assessed using both the SNODAS and in situ reference datasets and overall RMSEs of 21 mm and 37 mm were found, respectively. It was observed that the southern regions of the basin and seasons with higher downscaled SWE estimates were associated with higher errors with overestimation being the most common bias throughout the region. A major contribution of this study is the illustration that RFR downscaling of Globsnow SWE estimates is a feasible approach to understanding the seasonal dynamics of SWE in the Red River basin. This is extremely beneficial for local communities within the basin for flood management and mitigation and water resource management

Earth Resources. A continuing bibliography with indexes, issue 34, July 1982

This bibliography lists 567 reports, articles, and other documents introduced into the NASA Scientific and Technical Information System between April 1, and June 30, 1982. Emphasis is placed on the use of remote sensing and geophysical instrumentation in spacecraft and aircraft to survey and inventory natural resources and urban areas. Subject matter is grouped according to agriculture and forestry, environmental changes and cultural resources, geodesy and cartography, geology and mineral resources, hydrology and water management, data processing and distribution systems, instrumentation and sensors, and economic analysis

HUMAN AND CLIMATE IMPACTS ON FLOODING VIA REMOTE SENSING, BIG DATA ANALYTICS, AND MODELING

Over the last 20 years, the amount of streamflow has greatly increased and spring snowmelt floods have occurred more frequently in the north-central U.S. In the Red River of the North Basin (RRB) overlying portions of North Dakota and Minnesota, six of the 13 major floods over the past 100 years have occurred since the late 1990s. Based on numerous previous studies as well as senior flood forecasters’ experiences, recent hydrological changes related to human modifications [e.g. artificial subsurface drainage (SSD) expansion] and climate change are potential causes of notable forecasting failures over the past decade. My dissertation focuses on the operational and scientific gaps in current forecasting models and observational data and provides insights and value to both the practitioner and the research community. First, the current flood forecasting model needs both the location and installation timing of SSD and SSD physics. SSD maps were developed using satellite “big” data and a machine learning technique. Next, using the maps with a land surface model, the impacts of SSD expansion on regional hydrological changes were quantified. In combination with model physics, the inherent uncertainty in the airborne gamma snow survey observations hinders the accurate flood forecasting model. The operational airborne gamma snow water equivalent (SWE) measurements were improved by updating antecedent surface moisture conditions using satellite observations on soil moisture. From a long-term perspective, flood forecasters and state governments need knowledge of historical changes in snowpack and snowmelt to help flood management and to develop strategies to adapt to climate changes. However, historical snowmelt trends have not been quantified in the north-central U.S. due to the limited historical snow data. To overcome this, the current available historical long-term SWE products were evaluated across diverse regions and conditions. Using the most reliable SWE product, a trend analysis quantified the magnitude of change extreme snowpack and melt events over the past 36 years. Collectively, this body of research demonstrates that human and climate impacts, as well as limited and noisy data, cause uncertainties in flood prediction in the great plains, but integrated approaches using remote sensing, big data analytics, and modeling can quantify the hydrological changes and reduce the uncertainties. This dissertation improves the practice of flood forecasting in Red River of the North Basin and advances research in hydrology and snow science

Fourth National Aeronautics and Space Administration Weather and Climate Program Science Review

The NASA Weather and Climate Program has two major thrusts. The first involves the development of experimental and prototype operational satellite systems, sensors, and space facilities for monitoring and understanding the atmosphere. The second thrust involves basic scientific investigation aimed at studying the physical and chemical processes which control weather and climate. This fourth science review concentrated on the scientific research rather than the hardware development aspect of the program. These proceedings contain 65 papers covering the three general areas: severe storms and local weather research, global weather, and climate