Cross-Layer Pathfinding for Off-Chip Interconnects

Off-chip interconnects for integrated circuits (ICs) today induce a diverse design space, spanning many different applications that require transmission of data at various bandwidths, latencies and link lengths. Off-chip interconnect design solutions are also variously sensitive to system performance, power and cost metrics, while also having a strong impact on these metrics. The costs associated with off-chip interconnects include die area, package (PKG) and printed circuit board (PCB) area, technology and bill of materials (BOM). Choices made regarding off-chip interconnects are fundamental to product definition, architecture, design implementation and technology enablement. Given their cross-layer impact, it is imperative that a cross-layer approach be employed to architect and analyze off-chip interconnects up front, so that a top-down design flow can comprehend the cross-layer impacts and correctly assess the system performance, power and cost tradeoffs for off-chip interconnects. Chip architects are not exposed to all the tradeoffs at the physical and circuit implementation or technology layers, and often lack the tools to accurately assess off-chip interconnects. Furthermore, the collaterals needed for a detailed analysis are often lacking when the chip is architected; these include circuit design and layout, PKG and PCB layout, and physical floorplan and implementation. To address the need for a framework that enables architects to assess the system-level impact of off-chip interconnects, this thesis presents power-area-timing (PAT) models for off-chip interconnects, optimization and planning tools with the appropriate abstraction using these PAT models, and die/PKG/PCB co-design methods that help expose the off-chip interconnect cross-layer metrics to the die/PKG/PCB design flows. Together, these models, tools and methods enable cross-layer optimization that allows for a top-down definition and exploration of the design space and helps converge on the correct off-chip interconnect implementation and technology choice. The tools presented cover off-chip memory interfaces for mobile and server products, silicon photonic interfaces, 2.5D silicon interposers and 3D through-silicon vias (TSVs). The goal of the cross-layer framework is to assess the key metrics of the interconnect (such as timing, latency, active/idle/sleep power, and area/cost) at an appropriate level of abstraction by being able to do this across layers of the design flow. In additional to signal interconnect, this thesis also explores the need for such cross-layer pathfinding for power distribution networks (PDN), where the system-on-chip (SoC) floorplan and pinmap must be optimized before the collateral layouts for PDN analysis are ready. Altogether, the developed cross-layer pathfinding methodology for off-chip interconnects enables more rapid and thorough exploration of a vast design space of off-chip parallel and serial links, inter-die and inter-chiplet links and silicon photonics. Such exploration will pave the way for off-chip interconnect technology enablement that is optimized for system needs. The basis of the framework can be extended to cover other interconnect technology as well, since it fundamentally relates to system-level metrics that are common to all off-chip interconnects

The IPS fidelity scale as a guideline to implement Supported Employment

info:eu-repo/semantics/publishe

Placement for fast and reliable through-silicon-via (TSV) based 3D-IC layouts

The objective of this research is to explore the feasibility of addressing the major performance and reliability problems or issues, such as wirelength, stress-induced carrier mobility variation, temperature, and quality trade-offs, found in three-dimensional integrated circuits (3D ICs) that use through-silicon vias (TSVs) at placement stage. Four main works that support this goal are included. In the first work, wirelength of TSV-based 3D ICs is the main focus. In the second work, stress-induced carrier mobility variation in TSV-based 3D ICs is examined. In the third work, temperature inside TSV-based 3D ICs is investigated. In the final work, the quality trade-offs of TSV-based 3D-IC designs are explored. In the first work, a force-directed, 3D, and gate-level placement algorithm that efficiently handles TSVs is developed. The experiments based on synthesized benchmarks indicate that the developed algorithm helps generate GDSII layouts of 3D-IC designs that are optimized in terms of wirelength. In addition, the impact of TSVs on other physical aspects of 3D-IC designs is also studied by analyzing the GDSII layouts. In the second work, the model for carrier mobility variation caused by TSV and STI stresses is developed as well as the timing analysis flow considering the stresses. The impact of TSV and STI stresses on carrier mobility variation and performance of 3D ICs is studied. Furthermore, a TSV-stress-driven, force-directed, and 3D placement algorithm is developed. It exploits carrier mobility variation, caused by stress around TSVs after fabrication, to improve the timing and area objectives during placement. In addition, the impact of keep-out zone (KOZ) around TSVs on stress, carrier mobility variation, area, wirelength, and performance of 3D ICs is studied. In the third work, two temperature-aware global placement algorithms are developed. They exploit die-to-die thermal coupling in 3D ICs to improve temperature during placement. In addition, a framework used to evaluate the results from temperature-aware global placements is developed. The main component of the framework is a GDSII-level thermal analysis that considers all structures inside a TSV-based 3D IC while computing temperature. The developed placers are compared with several state-of-the-art placers published in recent literature. The experimental results indicate that the developed algorithms help improve the temperature of 3D ICs effectively. In the final work, three block-level design styles for TSV-based die-to-wafer bonded 3D ICs are discussed. Several 3D-IC layouts in the three styles are manually designed. The main difference among these layouts is the position of TSVs. Finally, the area, wirelength, timing, power, temperature, and mechanical stress of all layouts are compared to explore the trade-offs of layout quality.PhDCommittee Chair: Lim, Sung Kyu; Committee Member: Bakir, Muhannad; Committee Member: Kim, Hyesoon; Committee Member: Mukhopadhyay, Saibal; Committee Member: Swaminathan, Madhava

Placement and routing for reconfigurable systems.

Applications using reconfigurable logic have been widely demonstrated to offer better performance over software-based solutions. However, good performance rating is often destroyed by poor reconfiguration latency - time required to reconfigure hardware to perform the new task. Recent research focus on design automation techniques to address reconfiguration latency bottleneck. The contribution to novelty of this thesis is in new placement and routing techniques resulting in minimising reconfiguration latency of reconfigurable systems. This presents a part of design process concerned with positioning and connecting design blocks in a logic gate array. The aim of the research is to optimise the placement and interconnect strategy such that dynamic changes in system functionality can be achieved with minimum delay. A review of previous work in the field is given and the relevant theoretical framework developed. The dynamic reconfiguration problem is analysed for various reconfigurable technologies. Several algorithms are developed and evaluated using a representative set of problem domains to assess their effectiveness. Results obtained with novel placement and routing techniques demonstrate configuration data size reduction leading to significant reconfiguration latency improvements

Physical Design Methodologies for Low Power and Reliable 3D ICs

As the semiconductor industry struggles to maintain its momentum down the path following the Moore's Law, three dimensional integrated circuit (3D IC) technology has emerged as a promising solution to achieve higher integration density, better performance, and lower power consumption. However, despite its significant improvement in electrical performance, 3D IC presents several serious physical design challenges. In this dissertation, we investigate physical design methodologies for 3D ICs with primary focus on two areas: low power 3D clock tree design, and reliability degradation modeling and management. Clock trees are essential parts for digital system which dissipate a large amount of power due to high capacitive loads. The majority of existing 3D clock tree designs focus on minimizing the total wire length, which produces sub-optimal results for power optimization. In this dissertation, we formulate a 3D clock tree design flow which directly optimizes for clock power. Besides, we also investigate the design methodology for clock gating a 3D clock tree, which uses shutdown gates to selectively turn off unnecessary clock activities. Different from the common assumption in 2D ICs that shutdown gates are cheap thus can be applied at every clock node, shutdown gates in 3D ICs introduce additional control TSVs, which compete with clock TSVs for placement resources. We explore the design methodologies to produce the optimal allocation and placement for clock and control TSVs so that the clock power is minimized. We show that the proposed synthesis flow saves significant clock power while accounting for available TSV placement area. Vertical integration also brings new reliability challenges including TSV's electromigration (EM) and several other reliability loss mechanisms caused by TSV-induced stress. These reliability loss models involve complex inter-dependencies between electrical and thermal conditions, which have not been investigated in the past. In this dissertation we set up an electrical/thermal/reliability co-simulation framework to capture the transient of reliability loss in 3D ICs. We further derive and validate an analytical reliability objective function that can be integrated into the 3D placement design flow. The reliability aware placement scheme enables co-design and co-optimization of both the electrical and reliability property, thus improves both the circuit's performance and its lifetime. Our electrical/reliability co-design scheme avoids unnecessary design cycles or application of ad-hoc fixes that lead to sub-optimal performance. Vertical integration also enables stacking DRAM on top of CPU, providing high bandwidth and short latency. However, non-uniform voltage fluctuation and local thermal hotspot in CPU layers are coupled into DRAM layers, causing a non-uniform bit-cell leakage (thereby bit flip) distribution. We propose a performance-power-resilience simulation framework to capture DRAM soft error in 3D multi-core CPU systems. In addition, a dynamic resilience management (DRM) scheme is investigated, which adaptively tunes CPU's operating points to adjust DRAM's voltage noise and thermal condition during runtime. The DRM uses dynamic frequency scaling to achieve a resilience borrow-in strategy, which effectively enhances DRAM's resilience without sacrificing performance. The proposed physical design methodologies should act as important building blocks for 3D ICs and push 3D ICs toward mainstream acceptance in the near future

Physical design methodologies for monolithic 3D ICs

The objective of this research is to develop physical design methodologies for monolithic 3D ICs and use them to evaluate the improvements in the power-performance envelope offered over 2D ICs. In addition, design-for-test (DfT) techniques essential for the adoption of shorter term through-silicon-via (TSV) based 3D ICs are explored. Testing of TSV-based 3D ICs is one of the last challenges facing their commercialization. First, a pre-bond testable 3D scan chain construction technique is developed. Next, a transition-delay-fault test architecture is presented, along with a study on how to mitigate IR-drop. Finally, to facilitate partitioning, a quick and accurate framework for test-TSV estimation is developed. Block-level monolithic 3D ICs will be the first to emerge, as significant IP can be reused. However, no physical design flows exist, and hence a monolithic 3D floorplanning framework is developed. Next, inter-tier performance differences that arise due to the not yet mature fabrication process are investigated and modeled. Finally, an inter-tier performance-difference aware floorplanner is presented, and it is demonstrated that high quality 3D floorplans are achievable even under these inter-tier differences. Monolithic 3D offers sufficient integration density to place individual gates in three dimensions and connect them together. However, no tools or techniques exist that can take advantage of the high integration density offered. Therefore, a gate-level framework that leverages existing 2D ICs tools is presented. This framework also provides congestion modeling and produces results that minimize routing congestion. Next, this framework is extended to commercial 2D IC tools, so that steps such as timing optimization and clock tree synthesis can be applied. Finally, a voltage-drop-aware partitioning technique is presented that can alleviate IR-drop issues, without any impact on the performance or maximum operating temperature of the chip.Ph.D

Techniques de routage pseudo-aléatoire pour une application micro-électronique

Résumé La problématique de routage est très actuelle. On en trouve des applications dans les GPS, les prévisions de trafic routier, mais aussi pour le prototypage sur FPGA, la fabrication de puces électroniques ou le trafic TCP/IP sur Internet. On trouve des publications sur le sujet depuis plusieurs dizaines d'années, mais on observe actuellement une recrudescence confirmant l'actualité, l'importance et la complexité de ce problème. Cette thèse concerne le routage et ses ressources pour une application dans un nouveau type de système micro-électronique, nommé le WaferBoardTM . Son noyau consiste en un circuit électronique intégré à l'échelle d'une tranche de silicium (wafer). Peu d'applications commerciales de la micro-électronique ont exploité ce niveau d'intégration. Ce système de prototypage rapide vise à réduire d'un ou deux ordres de grandeur le temps de développement de systèmes électroniques. Il nécessite un ensemble d'outils logiciel de support, dont un outil de routage très rapide, capable de produire des solutions valables en des temps de l'ordre de la minute, et de certaines fonctionnalités spécifiques, l'équilibrage de délai ou le reroutage à la volée, au sein d'une netlist déjà routée. La problématique de routage pour cette application peut être imagée comme suit. Étant donné un réseau routier régulier (les routes d’Amériques du Nord en version cartésienne par exemple) et 100,000 voitures au départ lundi à 8h a.m. dans tout le pays avec des sources et destinations très variées; calculer les chemins pour toutes les voitures de telle sorte qu'aucune ne prenne la même route dans la journée. Il est 7h59 a.m, vous avez 1 minute, et des ponts sont inaccessibles pour travaux, en voici la liste. Cet exemple simpliste donne une idée des ordres de grandeurs de la problématique de routage que l'on cherche à résoudre pour cette application. Un algorithme de routage prend en paramètres deux structures de données : un graphe (ou réseau d'interconnexions) constitué de n\oe{}uds (sommets) et d'arcsUn arc relie deux sommets du graphe, et une netlistDans ce contexte, un netlist réfère à une liste d'interconnexions entre composants, liste de n\oe{}uds électriques dont les points de départ et d'arrivée sont positionnés géographiquement. Ainsi, au lieu de voitures, il s'agit de router des signaux électriques dont les points de départ et d'arrivée sont dictés par la position des broches des composants placés sur le système de prototypage. Un réseau régulier maillé mufti-dimensionnel (plus généralement appelé « réseau d'interconnexions ») sert de réseau routier dont certaines routes sont défectueuses, des ponts inaccessibles. En effet, le réseau d'interconnexions est un circuit électronique intégré à l'échelle d'une tranche de silicium complète, ce qui implique la présence de défectuosités au sein de chaque circuit fabriqué. Contrairement aux circuits électroniques classiques, où chacun est testé et les défectueux écartés, une intégration à l'échelle de la tranche demande de fortes redondances au sein du circuit pour minimiser le taux de rejets. Pour l'application du WaferBoard, un certain nombre d'éléments du réseau d'interconnexions seront fort probablement défectueux sur chaque circuit produit; l'algorithme de routage se doit de prendre en compte ces éléments très particuliers. Cette contrainte ne se retrouve pas dans les applications plus classiques des routeurs que l'on retrouve dans les PCB, circuits FPGA ou circuits VLSI. D'autres contraintes s'appliquent à ce projet particulier : la latence induite par la technologie est environ un ordre de grandeur plus importante que celle dans les circuits sur PCB, ce qui impose un routage orienté vers sa réduction.----------Abstract The routing problem is very actual. Applications are found in GPS, road traffic forecast, but also for prototyping on FPGA, or TCP/IP traffic on the Internet. Publications on the subject have existed for several decades, but new publications keep appearing, confirming the importance and complexity of the problem. This thesis deals with routing and the resources it requires for a new category of micro-electronic applications, called the WaferBoard. It is an electronic circuit integrated at the wafer scale. Few commercial applications of micro-electronics have exploited this level of integration. This rapid prototyping system aims at reducing by one or two orders of magnitude the development time of digital circuits. It requires a very fast routing tool, capable of producing viable solutions in a few minutes, with dedicated functionality such as balancing delays and rerouting on the fly parts of a netlist. The routing problem for this application can be pictured as follows. Given a regular road network of the size of north america, if 100.000 cars were to start Monday 8 a.m. across the continent with a wide variety of sources and destinations; the challenge is to compute paths for all cars so none of them take the same route that day. It is 7:59 am, you have 1 minute, and some bridges are under road work: here is the list. This simplistic example gives an idea of the orders of magnitude of the problem that need to be solved for this application. A routing algorithm takes as input: a graph (or interconnection network) made of nodes and edges, and a netlst, a list of electrical nodes with starting and ending points physically placed. Therefore, instead of cars, the problem consists of routing electrical signals with points of departure and arrival dictated by the pin position of components placed on the prototyping system. A regular, multi-dimensional mesh (also called "interconnection network") serves as a road network, which contains defective roads and inaccessible bridges. Indeed, the interconnection network is an electronic circuit integrated across a full wafer, implying the presence of defects within each manufactured circuit. Unlike conventional electronic circuits, where each is tested and defective ones are set apart, wafer scale integrated applications require lots of redundancy in the circuit to minimize the rejection rate. In the WaferBoard, a number of elements of the interconnection network will be defective in each circuit; the routing algorithm must take into account these very specific elements. This constraint is not found in the classic applications of routers found in PCB, FPGA or VLSI circuits. Other restrictions apply to this particular project: the latency induced by the technology is about one order of magnitude greater than that in the circuits of PCBs, which requires a routing oriented towards computation time reduction. This constraint partly explains the network architecture used. Within the WaferIC, the shortest distance is not necessarily the one that offers the smallest latency. This property of the network complexifies the routing problem. Balancing delays within a group of arbitrary size nets is a necessary feature of the routing algorithm, and the difficulty is amplified by the computation time limit. Indeed, the interest of the application is to reduce the time for a user to test a circuit: the time of setup is extremely short, and estimated at a few minutes only

Rapid SoC Design: On Architectures, Methodologies and Frameworks

Modern applications like machine learning, autonomous vehicles, and 5G networking require an order of magnitude boost in processing capability. For several decades, chip designers have relied on Moore’s Law - the doubling of transistor count every two years to deliver improved performance, higher energy efficiency, and an increase in transistor density. With the end of Dennard’s scaling and a slowdown in Moore’s Law, system architects have developed several techniques to deliver on the traditional performance and power improvements we have come to expect. More recently, chip designers have turned towards heterogeneous systems comprised of more specialized processing units to buttress the traditional processing units. These specialized units improve the overall performance, power, and area (PPA) metrics across a wide variety of workloads and applications. While the GPU serves as a classical example, accelerators for machine learning, approximate computing, graph processing, and database applications have become commonplace. This has led to an exponential growth in the variety (and count) of these compute units found in modern embedded and high-performance computing platforms. The various techniques adopted to combat the slowing of Moore’s Law directly translates to an increase in complexity for modern system-on-chips (SoCs). This increase in complexity in turn leads to an increase in design effort and validation time for hardware and the accompanying software stacks. This is further aggravated by fabrication challenges (photo-lithography, tooling, and yield) faced at advanced technology nodes (below 28nm). The inherent complexity in modern SoCs translates into increased costs and time-to-market delays. This holds true across the spectrum, from mobile/handheld processors to high-performance data-center appliances. This dissertation presents several techniques to address the challenges of rapidly birthing complex SoCs. The first part of this dissertation focuses on foundations and architectures that aid in rapid SoC design. It presents a variety of architectural techniques that were developed and leveraged to rapidly construct complex SoCs at advanced process nodes. The next part of the dissertation focuses on the gap between a completed design model (in RTL form) and its physical manifestation (a GDS file that will be sent to the foundry for fabrication). It presents methodologies and a workflow for rapidly walking a design through to completion at arbitrary technology nodes. It also presents progress on creating tools and a flow that is entirely dependent on open-source tools. The last part presents a framework that not only speeds up the integration of a hardware accelerator into an SoC ecosystem, but emphasizes software adoption and usability.PHDElectrical and Computer EngineeringUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/168119/1/ajayi_1.pd