Advances in water resources research in the Upper Blue Nile basin and the way forward: A review

The Upper Blue Nile basin is considered as the lifeline for ∼250 million people and contributes ∼50 Gm3/year of water to the Nile River. Poor land management practices in the Ethiopian highlands have caused a significant amount of soil erosion, thereby threatening the productivity of the Ethiopian agricultural system, degrading the health of the aquatic ecosystem, and shortening the life of downstream reservoirs. The Upper Blue Nile basin, because of limited research and availability of data, has been considered as the “great unknown.” In the recent past, however, more research has been published. Nonetheless, there is no state-of-the-art review that presents research achievements, gaps and future directions. Hence, this paper aims to bridge this gap by reviewing the advances in water resources research in the basin while highlighting research needs and future directions. We report that there have been several research projects that try to understand the biogeochemical processes by collecting information on runoff, groundwater recharge, sediment transport, and tracers. Different types of hydrological models have been applied. Most of the earlier research used simple conceptual and statistical approaches for trend analysis and water balance estimations, mainly using rainfall and evapotranspiration data. More recent research has been using advanced semi-physically/physically based distributed hydrological models using high-resolution temporal and spatial data for diverse applications. We identified several research gaps and provided recommendations to address them. While we have witnessed advances in water resources research in the basin, we also foresee opportunities for further advancement. Incorporating the research findings into policy and practice will significantly benefit the development and transformation agenda of the Ethiopian government

Book of abstracts TropiLakes2015: Tropical lakes in a changing environment: water, land, biology, climate and humans

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Modeling the water budget of the Upper Blue Nile basin using the JGrass-NewAge model system and satellite data

The Upper Blue Nile basin is one of the most data-scarce regions in developing countries, and hence the hydrological information required for informed decision making in water resource management is limited. The hydrological complexity of the basin, tied with the lack of hydrometeorological data, means that most hydrological studies in the region are either restricted to small subbasins where there are relatively better hydrometeorological data available, or on the whole-basin scale but at very coarse timescales and spatial resolutions. In this study we develop a methodology that can improve the state of the art by using available, but sparse, hydrometeorological data and satellite products to obtain the estimates of all the components of the hydrological cycle (precipitation, evapotranspiration, discharge, and storage). To obtain the water-budget closure, we use the JGrass-NewAge system and various remote sensing products. The satellite product SM2R-CCI is used for obtaining the rainfall inputs, SAF EUMETSAT for cloud cover fraction for proper net radiation estimation, GLEAM for comparison with NewAge-estimated evapotranspiration, and GRACE gravimetry data for comparison of the total water storage amounts available in the whole basin. Results are obtained at daily time steps for the period 1994–2009 (16 years), and they can be used as a reference for any water resource development activities in the region. The overall water-budget analysis shows that precipitation of the basin is 1360 ± 230 mm per year. Evapotranspiration accounts for 56 % of the annual water budget, runoff is 33 %, storage varies from −10 to +17 % of the water budget

Remote Sensing Tools For Land And Water Management In Data Scarce Blue Nile Basin

Ground based water resources monitoring systems are often difficult to maintain consistently in developing countries. The decline in the number of stations, data quality and changes in the data holding policy has made water resources data less reliable for use in operational purposes. The objective of this dissertation is, therefore, to evaluate the utility of existing freely available remotely sensed images to monitor water resource systems. In this dissertation Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) images were evaluated on the basis of their capability to (1) measure total suspended solid (TSS) and turbidity and generate historical TSS data, (2) estimate the water storage variation of Lake Tana and (3) monitor the state of biomass in the upper Blue Nile basin . The usability of historical TSS data in hydrologic modeling is also tested. Lake water samples were collected concurrent with the satellite overpass over the lake at the entry location of Gumera River, a major tributary to the lake. Reflectance in the red and near infrared (NIR) 250 m-pixel images taken on sampling days were correlated and validated using measured TSS and turbidity. The validated correlations were applied to the ten year image archive of MODIS to generate a 10-year TSS time series for the lake. In addition, MODIS images of the years 2002 - 2003, where the lake level variation was at its minimum, were used to generate the lake near-shore bathymetric model. The new near-shore bathymetric model reproduced water level measurements with a better accuracy than the existing bathymetric model of the lake. The usability of the TSS data was tested by initializing a hydrologic model for the Gumera watershed using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). The ten year TSS data generated were used to calibrate the model. The model was capable of predicting the monthly TSS variation. The potential of MODIS images in monitoring biomass recovery was also assessed at river basin scale. The enhanced vegetation index (EVI) - land surface temperature (LST) relation is used to map the trend in the disturbance of plantations put in place as conservation measures. In this dissertation the potential of satellite imagery as a data gap filling alternative to ground based monitoring systems in data scarce regions is tested

Assessing the impacts of land use and land cover change on hydrology of watershed: a case study on Gigel-Abbay Watershed, Lake Tana Basin, Ethiopia

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Geospatial Technologies.The population growth for the last 16 years caused changes in land cover of the Gilgel Abbay watershed, Lake Tana basin, Ethiopia. The effects of the land cover changes have impacted on the stream flow of the watershed by changing the magnitude of surface runoff and ground water flow. This study is mainly focusing on the assessment of the impacts of the land cover changes on the stream flow by changing SURQ and GWQ for the wet months (June, July, August) and dry months (January, February, March) through satellite Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) integrated with the SWAT model. ArcGIS used to generate land use and cover maps from Landsat TM and ETM+ acquired, respectively, in 1986 and 2001. The land cover maps were generated using the Maximum Likelihood Algorithm of Supervised Classification. The accuracy of the classified maps was assessed using Confusion Metrics. The result of this analysis showed that the cultivated land has expanded during the study period of 1986-2001. Using the two generated land cover maps, two SWAT models set up were run to evaluate the impacts the land use and cover changes on the stream flow of the study watershed. The performance of the SWAT model was evaluated through sensitivity analysis, calibration, and validation. Ten flow parameters were identified to be sensitive for the stream flow of the study area and used for model calibration. The model calibration was carried out using observed stream flow data from 01 January 1987 to 31 December 1994 and a validation period from 01 January 1995 to 31 December 2001. Both the calibration and validation results showed good match between measured and simulated stream flow data with the coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.93 and Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency (ENS) of 0.95 for the calibration, and R2 of 0.91 and ENS of 0.90 of the validation period. The result of this analysis indicated that the mean monthly stream flow increased by 16.26m3/s for the wet months while for the dry months decreased by 5.41 m3/s. Generally, the analysis indicated that flow during the wet months has increased, while the flow during the dry months decreased. The SURQ increased, while GWQ decreased from 1986 to 2001 due to the increment of cultivated lands. The model results showed that the stream flow characteristics changed due to the land cover changes during the study period

A systematic review of studies on freshwater lakes of Ethiopia

Study Region: The study covers the freshwater lakes of Ethiopia, which constitute about 87 billion cubic meters of water volume. The lakes are facing continued ecosystem degradation threats. Study Focus: The aim of this study was to make an inventory of existing literature regarding the freshwater lakes of Ethiopia and identify gaps and priorities for future research directions. This was done through a systematic review of published scientific literature related to the lakes and characterizing each study based on different criteria. New Hydrological Insights for the Region: We found a total of 231 articles on freshwater lakes of Ethiopia published in peer-reviewed journals between 1930 and March 2021. Most studies were focused on hydrochemical and biological characteristics of lakes, with less attention to physical structure and processes (including siltation, lake morphometry and catchment biophysical characteristics). Furthermore, (a) less attention was given to the spatial and temporal dynamics of variables that affect the freshwater lakes, (b) there was limited linkage between landscape hy drological dynamics and freshwater lakes and (c) the smaller highland lakes were given limited attention. Future research should be oriented to the study of the relationship between catchment biophysical dynamics and lake hydrological characteristics

Evaluating the Contribution of Remote Sensing Data Products for Regional Simulations of Hydrological Processes in West Africa using a Multi-Model Ensemble

Water is a crucial resource for human health, agricultural production and economic development. This holds especially true in West Africa, where large parts of the population work as self-sustaining farmers. Accurate knowledge of available water resources is therefore essential to properly manage this valuable commodity. Hydrologic modeling is seen as a key aspect in generating predictions of available resources. However, the overall availability of in situ data for model parametrization in West Africa has been steadily declining since the 1990s. When observations are available, they often contain errors and gaps. This lack of data severely hinders the application of hydrologic models in the region. Nowadays, many global and regional remote sensing and reanalysis data products exist which may be used to overcome these problems. A thorough analysis of the contribution of these products to regional simulations of hydrologic processes in West Africa has so far not been conducted. The purpose of this study is to close this gap. The study area spans from 3 to 24° latitude and -18 to 16° longitude and encompasses, among others, the Niger, Volta, and Senegal river basins. This study focuses on three key aspects, namely how the performance of remotely sensed and reanalyzed products can be validated without the availability of in situ data for the region; to what extent semi-distributed hydrologic models of the region can be parameterized and validated using these data; and how a fully distributed, grid-based model can be set up, calibrated and validated for sparsely-gauged river basins using multivariate data inputs. Comparisons of remote sensing and reanalysis precipitation products for the region show strong variability. A hydrologic evaluation was conducted, during which the skill of each precipitation dataset to accurately reproduce observed streamflow in HBV-light simulations was tested. Best results are achieved by products which include satellite infrared and microwave measurements as well as bias-correction based on in situ observations. Averaged Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiencies (NSE) of 0.66 were reached during the calibration of the CMORPH CRT and PERSIANN CDR products over six subbasins. In a next step, three SWAT models were set up for the region using multiple remote sensing and reanalysis data products and then calibrated and validated against observed river discharge with global and local approaches. While streamflow results differ within models and model regions, they are mostly satisfactory with coefficient of determination (R2) values of 0.52 and 0.51 for calibrations and 0.63 and 0.61 for validations. In a multivariate validation framework, the skill of the model in simulating variables not included in the calibration is further evaluated against remote sensing observations of actual evapotranspiration, soil moisture dynamics, and total water storage anomaly. Here, it has been shown that the models perform robustly and reach a good agreement in relation to observations. Furthermore, the grid-based mHM model was applied to several river basins in the south of the study area. After the quality of precipitation and evapotranspiration inputs was tested, a multivariate calibration was conducted. Models were calibrated using discharge observations (Q) and, to further constrain model boundary conditions, discharge in combination with remote sensing actual evapotranspiration observations (Q/ET). Finally, the quality of the simulations was tested against streamflow data as well as against remote sensing actual evapotranspiration, soil moisture, and total water storage anomaly data. Streamflow simulations performed well with averaged Kling-Gupta Efficiencies (KGE) of 0.53 for the first (Q) and 0.49 for the second (Q/ET) calibration. Further variables tested during the multiobjective validation were within good predictive ranges, especially during the Q/ET calibration. When SWAT and mHM model results are compared against each other and against external data products, results show that while both models perform robustly, mHM predictions outperform SWAT results. This study furthers the understanding of the contribution of remote sensing, reanalysis and global data products in regional simulations of hydrologic processes in West Africa. Specific modeling strategies and routines were developed to further increase predictive capabilities of hydrologic models of the region using these freely-available datasets

The impact of sedimentation and climate variability on the hydrological status of Lake Hawassa, South Ethiopia

Lake Hawassa is a topographically closed lake in the Central Main Ethiopian Rift Valley. The water level of this lake has been rising significantly with an average rate of 4.9 cm/year over the study period (1970-2010). The cause of this rise is not yet sufficiently investigated. The main target of this study is to investigate causal variables for lake level variability in general, and its resultant rise in particular. The study is based on two main hypotheses. The first is concerned with the effect of climate variability on the lake level variability; and the second is related to the effect of sedimentation on the storage capacity of the lake. The first hypothesis (the effect of climate variability) was investigated through the application of diverse statistical techniques. It comprises the coherence analysis to study the linear relationship between the 3.4 ENSO index and lake level changes. A sequential regime shift algorithm was employed to investigate the variations in the mean values of some selected hydro-climatic variables. Trend test was also used to investigate the variability of the hydro-climatic variables overtime. A simple water balance approach was applied to simulate the lake level variability so as to examine how the model behaves throughout the study period. The second hypothesis (the effect of sedimentation) was approached by conducting a new bathymetric survey. The result of the new survey was compared with the existing bathymetric map of 1999. The Pacific-Southwest Inter-Agency Committee (PSIAC) model was also employed to identify the "hot-spots" of sediment production in the watershed. In this semi-quantitative model, nine factors affecting sediment yielding the watershed were characterized, rated, and an overlay analysis was performed. Participatory assessment of anthropogenic factors that affect the hydrological status of the lake was conducted through the application of DPSIR (Drivers-Pressures-State-Impact-Response) analytical framework. The result of the coherence analysis between the monthly lake level changes and the corresponding changes in the ENSO index reveals that the two variables have significant linear relationship over frequencies ranging from 0.13 to 0.14 cycles/month or 1.56 to 1.68 cycles/year. This corresponds to a dominant average periodicity (coincident cycle) of about 7.4 months. Furthermore, the result of sequential regime shift detections show that most of the significant change points coincide with the occurrences of ENSO events and climate shifts. Generally, the lake level tends to be high during El Niño and low during La Niña years. The typical example is the coincidence of extreme historical maximum lake level to the strongest El Niño event of the century that occurred in 1997/98. The coincidence of climate regime shift in the Pacific Ocean in 1976/77 with an equivalent regime shift in the lake level and rainfall records of this period is considered as additional evidence. The study further reveals the existence of sequential regime shifts in stream flow, runoff coefficient, and lake evaporation which clearly coincide with the occurrences of ENSO phenomena. Results of the Mann-Kendall trend analyses also reveal the significant increasing trend of the lake level and streamflow. On the contrary, decreasing trend of evaporation was observed while rainfall exhibits no trend over the study period. The long-term increasing trend of streamflow from Tikur Wuha sub-watershed without the corresponding increment in rainfall is found to explain the role of land use/cover changes at least in modifying the impact of climate. The application of simple spreadsheet water balance model estimates the long-term (1986-2006) average annual magnitudes of the water balance components as follows: over-lake precipitation (89 Mm3), evaporation from the lake surface (132 Mm3), streamflow from the Tikur Wuha sub-watershed (94 Mm3), and streamflow from the un-gauged sub-watershed (77 Mm3) and storage changes (3 Mm3). Comparison of the two bathymetric maps shows that the average accumulated sediment between the years 1999 and 2010 was estimated as 14 ± 5cm or 13.3 x106 m3. Assuming a constant rate, the mean annual average rate of sedimentation in the lake is about 1.2 cm/year or 1.1 x106 m3. Accordingly, the mean annual reduction in storage capacity of the lake due to siltation is 0.08 %. The attempt to link sediment yield estimate of the bathymetric approach with the estimates of the PSIAC model results in a considerable disagreement as the former estimates 967 m3/km2/year whereas the latter estimates the sediment yield to be in the range of 95-250 m3/km2/yr. The result of participatory assessment of anthropogenic factors and review of previous studies shows that anthropogenic factors show considerable impact on the hydrological status of the lake. Sedimentation and increased runoff are perceived as pressures (immediate causes) for the lake level rise (state). These pressures are perceived to arise from drivers (land use changes, deforestation and misuse/mistreatment of land resources). These drivers in turn had resulted from indirect drivers that comprised population growth and density, agricultural development, the use of wood as fuel, socio-economic changes, and the existing land tenure system. The interesting finding of this assessment of anthropogenic factors is the presence of promising policy instruments (responses) that support the integrated management of the lake and the watershed. The failure of implementation of these policy instruments is the commonly complained issues among the stakeholders.Der Einfluss von Sedimentation und Klimavariabilität auf die Hydrologie des Hawassa-Sees, Südäthiopien Der Hawassa-See ist ein Endsee im afrikanischen Grabenbruch, dessen Wasserstand im Zeitraum dieser Studie (1970-2010) jährlich im Durchschnitt um 4,9 cm gestiegen ist. Der Grund für diesen Anstieg ist noch nicht ausreichend erforscht. Das Hauptziel dieser Studie ist die Untersuchung der Ursachen für die Variabilität des Seewasserstandes im Allgemeinen und für den beobachteten Anstieg insbesondere. Dieser Arbeit liegen zwei Hypothesen zugrunde. Die erste bezieht sich auf die Auswirkungen der Klimavariabilität und die zweite auf die Auswirkung der Sedimentation auf die Speicherkapazität des Hawassa-Sees. Für die Untersuchung der ersten Hypothese (Auswirkung der Klimavariabilität) wurden verschiedene statistische Verfahren eingesetzt, darunter die Kohärenzanalyse, um die lineare Beziehung zwischen dem 3.4 ENSO-Index und der Wasserstandsänderung zu prüfen. Der sequential regime shift algorithm wurde verwendet, um zu untersuchen, ob die Kipppunkte der Mittelwerte ausgewählter hydro-klimatischer Variablen mit dem Auftreten bzw. der Intensität der ENSO-Ereignisse übereinstimmen. Weiterhin wurde eine Trendanalyse durchgeführt, um die zeitliche Variabilität klimatischer Parameter zu bestimmen. Mittels eines einfachen Wasserbilanzverfahrens wurden die Wasserstandsänderungen simuliert, um das Modellverhalten im Untersuchungszeitraum zu analysieren. Für die Analyse der zweiten Hypothese (Sedimentationseffekt) wurde eine neue bathymetrische Untersuchung durchgeführt und mit einer existierenden Bathymetrie aus dem Jahr 1999 verglichen. Das Pacific-Southwest Inter-Agency-Committee-Modell (PSIAC) wurde für die Bestimmung von „Hot-Spots“ der Sedimentproduktion eingesetzt. In diesem Modell werden neun Faktoren der Erosion und Sedimentation im Einzugsgebiet berücksichtigt, flächenhaft berechnet und überlagert. Abschließend wurde eine partizipative Bewertung der beeinflussenden anthropogenen Faktoren im Rahmen der DPSIR-Methode (Drivers-Pressures-State-Impact-Response) durchgeführt. Das Ergebnis der Kohärenzanalyse zwischen monatlichen Wasserstandsänderungen und den entsprechenden ENSO-Indices zeigt, dass die beiden Variablen eine signifikante lineare Beziehung im Frequenzbereich von 0,13 bis 0,14 Zyklen/Monat bzw. 1,56 bis 1,68 Zyklen/Jahr aufweisen. Dies entspricht einer dominierenden mittleren Periodizität von ca. 7,4 Monaten. Darüber hinaus zeigen die Ergebnisse der sequential regime shift detection, dass die überwiegenden Kipppunkte der ENSO-Ereignisse und der Klimaparameter übereinstimmen. Der Seewasserstand tendiert in El Niño-Jahren zu höheren und in La Niña-Jahren zu niedrigeren Werten. Ein typisches Beispiel ist die Übereinstimmung des historisch höchsten Seewasserstandes mit dem stärksten El Niño-Ereignis des letzten Jahrhunderts im Winter 1997/1998. Eine weitere Evidenz ist die Übereinstimmung der Verschiebung des Klimaregimes im pazifischen Ozean 1976/1977 mit einer entsprechenden Verschiebung des Seewasserstände und der Niederschläge im gleichen Zeitraum. Die Untersuchung zeigt auch die Existenz von weiteren Regimeverschiebungen in Abfluss, Abflussbeiwert und Evaporation in Übereinstimmung mit ENSO-Ereignissen. Die Ergebnisse der Mann-Kendall-Trendanalyse zeigen eine Übereinstimmung zwischen Seewasserstand und gemessenem Zufluss, wohingegen die Evaporation abnimmt und der Niederschlag keinen Trend zeigt. Die langfristige Zunahme der beobachteten Zuflüsse am Pegel Tikur-Wuha ohne Änderung des Niederschlags ist ein Hinweis auf die Bedeutung von Landnutzungs- und Landbedeckungsänderungen im Einzugsgebiet. Die Anwendung einer einfachen Tabellenkalkulation ergibt die langfristigen (1986-2006) mittleren Jahresbilanzen: Niederschlag über dem See (89 Mm3), Evaporation des Sees (132 Mm3), Zufluss des Tikur-Wuha Einzugsgebietes (94 Mm3), und Zufluss des nicht instrumentierten Einzugsgebietes (77 Mm3) sowie Speicheränderung (3 Mm3). Der Vergleich der beiden Bathymetrien ergibt eine Sedimentakkumulation in der Zeit von 1999 bis 2010 in Höhe von 14 ± 5cm oder 13.3 x106 m3, was einem mittleren Wert von 1.2 cm/a oder 1.1x106 m3 entspricht. Dies bedeutet einen Verlust an Speichervolumen in Höhe von 0.08% pro Jahr. Beim Versuch, die Ergebnisse der Bathymetrie (967 m3/km2/a) mit denen des PSIAC Modells (95-250 m3/km2/a) zu vergleichen, werden klare Unterschiede deutlich. Die Analyse vorheriger Studien und die teilnehmende Bewertung der anthropogenen Einflussfaktoren zeigen einen deutlichen Einfluss derselben auf die Hydrologie des Sees. Sedimentation und zunehmender Gebietsabfluss werden als Belastung (pressure) für den Seewasserstand (Status, state) angesehen. Diese Belastung ist eine Folge verschiedener Treiber (drivers: Landnutzungsänderung, Abholzung, unangemessene Nutzung der Landressourcen). Diese direkten Treiber werden von indirekten Treibern wie Bevölkerungswachstum, landwirtschaftliche Entwicklungen, Feuerholznutzung, sozio-ökonomische Änderungen sowie den existierenden Besitzverhältnissen beeinflusst. Interessanterweise existieren vielversprechende politische Instrumente (response), die das integrierte Management des Sees und seines Einzugsgebietes unterstützen. Das Versagen der Implementierung dieser politischen Instrumente wird von den betroffenen Stakeholdern beklagt

Analysing the impact of climate change on hydrological ecosystem services in laguna del sauce (Uruguay) using the swat model and remote sensing data

Assessing how climate change will affect hydrological ecosystem services (HES) provision is necessary for long-term planning and requires local comprehensive climate information. In this study, we used SWAT to evaluate the impacts on four HES, natural hazard protection, erosion control regulation and water supply and flow regulation for the Laguna del Sauce catchment in Uruguay. We used downscaled CMIP-5 global climate models for Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 2.6, 4.5 and 8.5 projections. We calibrated and validated our SWAT model for the periods 2005 2009 and 2010 2013 based on remote sensed ET data. Monthly NSE and R2 values for calibration and validation were 0.74, 0.64 and 0.79, 0.84, respectively. Our results suggest that climate change will likely negatively affect the water resources of the Laguna del Sauce catchment, especially in the RCP 8.5 scenario. In all RCP scenarios, the catchment is likely to experience a wetting trend, higher temperatures, seasonality shifts and an increase in extreme precipitation events, particularly in frequency and magnitude. This will likely affect water quality provision through runoff and sediment yield inputs, reducing the erosion control HES and likely aggravating eutrophication. Although the amount of water will increase, changes to the hydrological cycle might jeopardize the stability of freshwater supplies and HES on which many people in the south-eastern region of Uruguay depend. Despite streamflow monitoring capacities need to be enhanced to reduce the uncertainty of model results, our findings provide valuable insights for water resources planning in the study area. Hence, water management and monitoring capacities need to be enhanced to reduce the potential negative climate change impacts on HES. The methodological approach presented here, based on satellite ET data can be replicated and adapted to any other place in the world since we employed open-access software and remote sensing data for all the phases of hydrological modelling and HES provision assessment. © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.This work has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme within the framework of the project SMARTLAGOON under grant agreement No. 101017861. This study was also supported by the State Research Agency of Spain through the excellence certification María de Maeztu (Ref. MDM-2017-0714). Celina Aznarez was supported by the Doctoral INPhINIT–INCOMING program, fellowship code (LCF/BQ/DI20/11780004), from “la Caixa” Foundation (ID 100010434). Javier Senent-Aparicio was supported by the training grant (21201/EE/19) awarded by the Séneca Foundation in the framework of the Jimenez de la Espada Mobility, Cooperation and Internationalization Program. Adrián López-Ballesteros was supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte with an FPU grant (FPU17/00923). Juan Pablo Pacheco was supported by the Sino-Danish Center–Aarhus University, the University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the University of the Republic, Uruguay. This work has received funding from the European Union?s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme within the framework of the project SMARTLAGOON under grant agreement No. 101017861. This study was also supported by the State Research Agency of Spain through the excellence certification Mar?a de Maeztu (Ref. MDM-2017-0714). Celina Aznarez was supported by the Doctoral INPhINIT?INCOMING program, fellowship code (LCF/BQ/DI20/11780004), from ?la Caixa? Foundation (ID 100010434). Javier Senent-Aparicio was supported by the training grant (21201/EE/19) awarded by the S?neca Foundation in the framework of the Jimenez de la Espada Mobility, Cooperation and Internationalization Program. Adri?n L?pez-Ballesteros was supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Educaci?n, Cultura y Deporte with an FPU grant (FPU17/00923). Juan Pablo Pacheco was supported by the Sino-Danish Center?Aarhus University, the University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the University of the Republic, Uruguay. The authors acknowledge Paper Check Proofreading and Editing Services for proofreading the manuscript