Mapping moraines and glaciers using multispectral imagery and ancillary elevation data : An approach for Svalbard, Norwegian Arctic

Abstract This study uses multispectral Landsat satellite imagery and a high resolution Digital Elevation Model based on 1990/95 aerial stereoimagery (Norwegian Polar Institute) to map moraines and glacier terminus positions on the high Arctic archipelago of Svalbard, Norway. To accomplish the task, this methodological Master thesis investigates different approaches of classification and incorporation of ancillary elevation data. Glaciers and other ice masses are important parts of the climatic system and also eminent terrestrial indicators for climate change in the scale of tenths to thousands of years. In the context of climatic response and global sea-level rise, mass balance studies on glaciers are important means to quantify trends however they are laborious and only for a few glaciers worldwide available. The application of remote sensing may help to determine changes in volume and extent of glaciers with a greater spatial coverage. Furthermore, area-wide mapping of unvegetated moraines on Svalbard may aid to quantify past glacial dynamics, especially since the Little Ice Age (LIA). During this study a thematic map of vegetation- and glacier-cover dating to the period from 1999 to 2002 has been produced by contrast-enhancing-methods and supervised determination of class thresholds, covering almost the complete archipelago. ISODATA classifications of combined terrain statistics and primary topographic attributes are merged with multispectral data to map the extend of moraines. Combinations of VIS, NIR and SWIR spectral bands with elevation range and standard deviation, curvature and slope deliver the most promising results when joined to neighbourhood analysis. Datasets from principal component analysis deliver good results as well. However, since the morphological diversity is high, no method is superior on all moraines. Multitemporal change detection was tested for a small number of glaciers on Brøggerhalvøya, western Spitsbergen, where recent data was acquired in the field during 2006. High variation coefficients for annual retreat rates of 26 and 45% were discovered among datasets with different spatial resolutions. The overall trend was negative at all events, varying from 10 to 19 m/a horizontal retreat during the entire investigated period from 1983 to 2006. The fast losses of Svalbard glaciers are likely connected to climatic warming trends which are also obvious from direct measurements. The necessity of glacial studies becomes obvious as the retreat of the smaller glaciers and ice caps outside Greenland and Antarctica contributes to global sea level rise second only to the thermal expansion, with Svalbard being a major player. Abstrakt Diese Studie verwendet multispektrale Landsat Satellitenbilder und ein hochauflösendes digitales Geländemodel, welches auf Stereoluftbildern von 1990/95 vom Norwegischen Polarinstitut basiert, um Moränen sowie die Position von Gletscherfronten auf der hocharktischen Inselgruppe Svalbards (Norwegen) zu kartieren. Hierzu untersucht diese methodologische Masterarbeit verschiedene Ansätze zur Klassifikation und Integration ergänzender Geländedaten. Gletscher und andere Eismassen sind wichtige Bestandteile des Klimasystems und außerdem die besten Klimaindikatoren der festen Landoberfläche, bezogen auf Zeiträume einiger Jahrzehnte bis Jahrtausende. In dem Zusammenhang von Klimadynamik und weltweitem Meeresspiegelanstieg sind Massenbilanzstudien auf Gletschern wichtig um Trends zu quantifizieren, allerdings sind solche Untersuchungen aufwändig und wurden weltweit nur auf einer kleinen Zahl von Gletschern durchgeführt. Die Anwendung der Fernerkundung hilft Daten über Volumen- und Flächenänderungen von Gletschern flächendeckend zu erheben. Darüber hinaus kann die flächendeckende Kartierung vegetationsfreier Moränen auf Svalbard dabei helfen vergangene Gletscherfluktuationen, insbesondere seit der kleinen Eiszeit, zu quantifizieren. Im Rahmen dieser Studie wurde, mit Hilfe von kontrastverbessernden Bildbearbeitungsmethoden und manueller Grenzwertbestimmung, eine thematische Karte der Gletscher- und Vegetationsbedeckung aus dem Zeitraum von 1999 bis 2002 erstellt, welche einen Großteil Svalbards abdeckt. ISODATA-Klassifizierungen von kombinierten Geländestatistiken und primären Geländeattributen wurden zur Kartierung der Moränen mit multispektralen Daten kombiniert. Die gemeinsame Verwendung der spektralen Kanäle im sichtbaren, im nah-infraroten und im kurzwellig-infraroten Bereich sowie der Höhenvariabilität und -Standardabweichung, der Geländerundung und dem Gefälle lieferten die vielversprechendsten Ergebnisse, sofern Nachbarschaftsbeziehungsanalysen integriert wurden. Datensätze aus der Hauptkomponentenanalyse liefern ebenfalls gute Ergebnisse, prinzipiell gilt jedoch angesichts der morphologischen Vielfalt der Moränen dass keine Methode in allen Bereichen überlegen ist. Multitemporale Änderungskartierungen wurden für eine kleine Anzahl von Gletschern auf der Brøggerhalbinsel in Westspitzbergen getestet, auf der 2006 auch Feldkartierungen durchgeführt wurden. Hohe Variationskoeffizienten von 26 bis 45% wurden für die Messungen des jährlichen Rückgangs der Gletscher aus verschiedenen Datensätzen mit unterschiedlichen räumlichen Auflösungen festgestellt. Der allgemeine Trend war in allen Fällen negativ und variierte während des gesamten untersuchten Zeitraumes von 1983 bis 2006 zwischen 10 und 19 Metern Rückgang pro Jahr. Die raschen Verluste der Gletscher Svalbards sind vermutlich auf klimatische Veränderungen zurückzuführen welche auch in direkten Messungen deutlich werden. Die Notwendigkeit glaziologischer Untersuchungen wird durch die Tatsache, dass der Rückgang kleinerer Gletscher außerhalb Grönlands und der Antarktis bereits jetzt den zweitgrößten Beitrag zum globalen Meeresspiegelanstieg nach der Wärmeausdehnung leistet, unterstrichen. Svalbards Gletscher liefern hierzu einen der Hauptbeiträge. Abstrakt Denne studien bruker multispektrale bilder fra Landsat-satelliten og en digital terrengmodell med høy oppløsning, hvilket er basert på stereo-flybilder fra 1990/95 av Norsk Polarinstitutt. Studiens mål er å kartlegge morener og brefronter på den høy-arktiske øygruppen Svalbard (Norge). For å oppnå dette målet, undersøker denne metodologiske Masteroppgaven forskjellige adkomster til klassifikasjon med integrasjon av supplerende høydeverdier. Breer og andre ismasser er viktige deler av det klimatiske system og de viser til klimatiske forandringer på tidsrom fra tiår til tusenår. I sammenheng med klimatisk reaksjon og økning av havnivået verden rundt, er glasiologiske undersøkelser svært viktig, siden det hjelper med å kvantifisere en slik utvikling. Men glasiologiske undersøkelser er ressurskrevende, og det er derfor bare blitt gjort på et lite antall breer i verden. Bruk av fjernmåling hjelper til å undersøke breer med en utvidet dekning. I tillegg kan en arealdekkende kartlegging av morener på Svalbard hjelpe til å forstå, og måle forandring av breer i fortiden, spesielt siden den lille istiden. En tematisk kart av vegetasjon og is-dekning som omfatter nesten hele øygruppen i tidsrommet fra 1999 til 2002, blitt produsert under dette studiet. Kartleggingen er utført med hjelp av kontrastøkende metoder og manuell determinasjon av grenseverdiene. ISODATA klassifikasjoner av statistiske terrengmodeller og primære terrengattributter er blitt sammenført med multispektral data til å kartlegge utvidelse av morener. Kombinasjonen av VIS, NIR og SWIR spektrale kanaler med høydevariabilitet og standardavvikelse av høyden, runding og helning leverer de beste resultatene når de blir etterbehandlet med naboskapsanalyser. Hovedkomponentanalysen viser også gode resultater, men prinsipielt er den morfologiske variabilitet innenfor morenene stor og det finnes ingen metode som er overlegen i alle områder. Den multitemporal endringsanalyse er blitt testet på et lite antall breer på Brøggerhalvøya, Vestspitsbergen. På samme området er brefrontene og morenene blitt kartlagt i felt i 2006. Høye variasjonskoeffisienter på 45 og 26 % ble observert i målinger av årlig tilbaketrekking i areal og lengde med ulik romlig oppløsning. Den generelle trenden var negativ i alle undersøkte tilfeller, med variasjoner i tilbaketrekking fra 10 til 19 meter per år i hele studieperioden fra 1983 til 2006. Det store massetapet fra Svalbards breer er utvilsomt relatert til klimatisk oppvarming, en trend som også vises i direkte målinger. Nødvendigheten av å undersøke breer blir enda mer åpenbar av at tilbaketrekkingen av små breer og iskapper utenom Grønland og Antarktis allerede nå utgjør det nest største bidraget, etter termisk ekspansjon, til den globale økningen i havnivå – og her er Svalbard en viktig aktør

Calibration of DART Radiative Transfer Model with Satellite Images for Simulating Albedo and Thermal Irradiance Images and 3D Radiative Budget of Urban Environment

Remote sensing is increasingly used for managing urban environment. In this context, the H2020 project URBANFLUXES aims to improve our knowledge on urban anthropogenic heat fluxes, with the specific study of three cities: London, Basel and Heraklion. Usually, one expects to derive directly 2 major urban parameters from remote sensing: the albedo and thermal irradiance. However, the determination of these two parameters is seriously hampered by complexity of urban architecture. For example, urban reflectance and brightness temperature are far from isotropic and are spatially heterogeneous. Hence, radiative transfer models that consider the complexity of urban architecture when simulating remote sensing signals are essential tools. Even for these sophisticated models, there is a major constraint for an operational use of remote sensing: the complex 3D distribution of optical properties and temperatures in urban environments. Here, the work is conducted with the DART (Discrete Anisotropic Radiative Transfer) model. It is a comprehensive physically based 3D radiative transfer model that simulates optical signals at the entrance of imaging spectro-radiometers and LiDAR scanners on board of satellites and airplanes, as well as the 3D radiative budget, of urban and natural landscapes for any experimental (atmosphere, topography,…) and instrumental (sensor altitude, spatial resolution, UV to thermal infrared,…) configuration. Paul Sabatier University distributes free licenses for research activities. This paper presents the calibration of DART model with high spatial resolution satellite images (Landsat 8, Sentinel 2, etc.) that are acquired in the visible (VIS) / near infrared (NIR) domain and in the thermal infrared (TIR) domain. Here, the work is conducted with an atmospherically corrected Landsat 8 image and Bale city, with its urban database. The calibration approach in the VIS/IR domain encompasses 5 steps for computing the 2D distribution (image) of urban albedo at satellite spatial resolution. (1) DART simulation of satellite image at very high spatial resolution (e.g., 50cm) per satellite spectral band. Atmosphere conditions are specific to the satellite image acquisition. (2) Spatial resampling of DART image at the coarser spatial resolution of the available satellite image, per spectral band. (3) Iterative derivation of the urban surfaces (roofs, walls, streets, vegetation,…) optical properties as derived from pixel-wise comparison of DART and satellite images, independently per spectral band. (4) Computation of the band albedo image of the city, per spectral band. (5) Computation of the image of the city albedo and VIS/NIR exitance, as an integral over all satellite spectral bands. In order to get a time series of albedo and VIS/NIR exitance, even in the absence of satellite images, ECMWF information about local irradiance and atmosphere conditions are used. A similar approach is used for calculating the city thermal exitance using satellite images acquired in the thermal infrared domain. Finally, DART simulations that are conducted with the optical properties derived from remote sensing images give also the 3D radiative budget of the city at any date including the date of the satellite image acquisition

Soil erosion in the Alps : causes and risk assessment

The issue of soil erosion in the Alps has long been neglected due to the low economic value of the agricultural land. However, soil stability is a key parameter which affects ecosystem services like slope stability, water budgets (drinking water reservoirs as well as flood prevention), vegetation productivity, ecosystem biodiversity and nutrient production. In alpine regions, spatial estimates on soil erosion are difficult to derive because the highly heterogeneous biogeophysical structure impedes measurement of soil erosion and the applicability of soil erosion models. However, remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS) methods allow for spatial estimation of soil erosion by direct detection of erosion features and supply of input data for soil erosion models. Thus, the main objective of this work is to address the problem of soil erosion risk assessment in the Alps on catchment scale with remote sensing and GIS tools. Regarding soil erosion processes the focus is on soil erosion by water (here sheet erosion) and gravity (here landslides). For these two processes we address i) the monitoring and mapping of the erosion features and related causal factors ii) soil erosion risk assessment with special emphasis on iii) the validation of existing models for alpine areas. All investigations were accomplished in the Urseren Valley (Central Swiss Alps) where the valley slopes are dramatically affected by sheet erosion and landslides. For landslides, a natural susceptibility of the catchment has been indicated by bivariate and multivariate statistical analysis. Geology, slope and stream density are the most significant static landslide causal factors. Static factors are here defined as factors that do not change their attributes during the considered time span of the study (45 years), e.g. geology, stream network. The occurrence of landslides might be significantly increased by the combined effects of global climate and land use change. Thus, our hypothesis is that more recent changes in land use and climate affected the spatial and temporal occurrence of landslides. The increase of the landslide area of 92% within 45 years in the study site confirmed our hypothesis. In order to identify the cause for the trend in landslide occurrence time-series of landslide causal factors were analysed. The analysis revealed increasing trends in the frequency and intensity of extreme rainfall events and stocking of pasture animals. These developments presumably enhanced landslide hazard. Moreover, changes in land-cover and land use were shown to have affected landslide occurrence. For instance, abandoned areas and areas with recently emerging shrub vegetation show very low landslide densities. Detailed spatial analysis of the land use with GIS and interviews with farmers confirmed the strong influence of the land use management practises on slope stability. The definite identification and quantification of the impact of these non-stationary landslide causal factors (dynamic factors) on the landslide trend was not possible due to the simultaneous change of several factors. The consideration of dynamic factors in statistical landslide susceptibility assessments is still unsolved. The latter may lead to erroneous model predictions, especially in times of dramatic environmental change. Thus, we evaluated the effect of dynamic landslide causal factors on the validity of landslide susceptibility maps for spatial and temporal predictions. For this purpose, a logistic regression model based on data of the year 2000 was set up. The resulting landslide susceptibility map was valid for spatial predictions. However, the model failed to predict the landslides that occurred in a subsequent event. In order to handle this weakness of statistic landslide modelling a multitemporal approach was developed. It is based on establishing logistic regression models for two points in time (here 1959 and 2000). Both models could correctly classify >70% of the independent spatial validation dataset. By subtracting the 1959 susceptibility map from the 2000 susceptibility map a deviation susceptibility map was obtained. Our interpretation was that these susceptibility deviations indicate the effect of dynamic causal factors on the landslide probability. The deviation map explained 85% of new independent landslides occurring after 2000. Thus, we believe it to be a suitable tool to add a time element to a susceptibility map pointing to areas with changing susceptibility due to recently changing environmental conditions or human interactions. In contrast to landslides that are a direct threat to buildings and infrastructure, sheet erosion attracts less attention because it is often an unseen process. Nonetheless, sheet erosion may account for a major proportion of soil loss. Soil loss by sheet erosion is related to high spatial variability, however, in contrast to arable fields for alpine grasslands erosion damages are long lasting and visible over longer time periods. A crucial erosion triggering parameter that can be derived from satellite imagery is fractional vegetation cover (FVC). Measurements of the radiogenic isotope Cs-137, which is a common tracer for soil erosion, confirm the importance of FVC for soil erosion yield in alpine areas. Linear spectral unmixing (LSU), mixture tuned matched filtering (MTMF) and the spectral index NDVI are applied for estimating fractional abundance of vegetation and bare soil. To account for the small scale heterogeneity of the alpine landscape very high resolved multispectral QuickBird imagery is used. The performance of LSU and MTMF for estimating percent vegetation cover is good (r²=0.85, r²=0.71 respectively). A poorer performance is achieved for bare soil (r²=0.28, r²=0.39 respectively) because compared to vegetation, bare soil has a less characteristic spectral signature in the wavelength domain detected by the QuickBird sensor. Apart from monitoring erosion controlling factors, quantification of soil erosion by applying soil erosion risk models is done. The performance of the two established models Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and Pan-European Soil Erosion Risk Assessment (PESERA) for their suitability to model erosion for mountain environments is tested. Cs-137 is used to verify the resulting erosion rates from USLE and PESERA. PESERA yields no correlation to measured Cs-137 long term erosion rates and shows lower sensitivity to FVC. Thus, USLE is used to model the entire study site. The LSU-derived FVC map is used to adapt the C factor of the USLE. Compared to the low erosion rates computed with the former available low resolution dataset (1:25000) the satellite supported USLE map shows “hotspots” of soil erosion of up to 16 t ha-1 a-1. In general, Cs-137 in combination with the USLE is a very suitable method to assess soil erosion for larger areas, as both give estimates on long-term soil erosion. Especially for inaccessible alpine areas, GIS and remote sensing proved to be powerful tools that can be used for repetitive measurements of erosion features and causal factors. In times of global change it is of crucial importance to account for temporal developments. However, the evaluation of the applied soil erosion risk models revealed that the implementation of temporal aspects, such as varying climate, land use and vegetation cover is still insufficient. Thus, the proposed validation strategies (spatial, temporal and via Cs-137) are essential. Further case studies in alpine regions are needed to test the methods elaborated for the Urseren Valley. However, the presented approaches are promising with respect to improve the monitoring and identification of soil erosion risk areas in alpine regions

NASA's surface biology and geology designated observable: A perspective on surface imaging algorithms

The 2017–2027 National Academies' Decadal Survey, Thriving on Our Changing Planet, recommended Surface Biology and Geology (SBG) as a “Designated Targeted Observable” (DO). The SBG DO is based on the need for capabilities to acquire global, high spatial resolution, visible to shortwave infrared (VSWIR; 380–2500 nm; ~30 m pixel resolution) hyperspectral (imaging spectroscopy) and multispectral midwave and thermal infrared (MWIR: 3–5 μm; TIR: 8–12 μm; ~60 m pixel resolution) measurements with sub-monthly temporal revisits over terrestrial, freshwater, and coastal marine habitats. To address the various mission design needs, an SBG Algorithms Working Group of multidisciplinary researchers has been formed to review and evaluate the algorithms applicable to the SBG DO across a wide range of Earth science disciplines, including terrestrial and aquatic ecology, atmospheric science, geology, and hydrology. Here, we summarize current state-of-the-practice VSWIR and TIR algorithms that use airborne or orbital spectral imaging observations to address the SBG DO priorities identified by the Decadal Survey: (i) terrestrial vegetation physiology, functional traits, and health; (ii) inland and coastal aquatic ecosystems physiology, functional traits, and health; (iii) snow and ice accumulation, melting, and albedo; (iv) active surface composition (eruptions, landslides, evolving landscapes, hazard risks); (v) effects of changing land use on surface energy, water, momentum, and carbon fluxes; and (vi) managing agriculture, natural habitats, water use/quality, and urban development. We review existing algorithms in the following categories: snow/ice, aquatic environments, geology, and terrestrial vegetation, and summarize the community-state-of-practice in each category. This effort synthesizes the findings of more than 130 scientists

Debris-covered glacier systems and associated glacial lake outburst flood hazards:Challenges and prospects

Glaciers respond sensitively to climate variability and change, with associated impacts on meltwater production, sea-level rise and geomorphological hazards. There is a strong societal interest in understanding the current response of all types of glacier systems to climate change and how they will continue to evolve in the context of the whole glacierized landscape. In particular, understanding the current and future behaviour of debris-covered glaciers is a 'hot topic' in glaciological research because of concerns for water resources and glacier-related hazards. The state of these glaciers is closely related to various hazardous geomorphological processes which are relatively poorly understood. Understanding the implications of debris-covered glacier evolution requires a systems approach. This includes the interplay of various factors such as local geomorphology, ice ablation patterns, debris characteristics and glacier lake growth and development. Such a broader, contextualized understanding is prerequisite to identifying and monitoring the geohazards and hydrologic implications associated with changes in the debris-covered glacier system under future climate scenarios. This paper presents a comprehensive review of current knowledge of the debris-covered glacier landsystem. Specifically, we review state-of-the-art field-based and the remote sensing-based methods for monitoring debris-covered glacier characteristics and lakes and their evolution under future climate change. We advocate a holistic process-based framework for assessing hazards associated with moraine-dammed glacio-terminal lakes that are a projected end-member state for many debris-covered glaciers under a warming climat

The data concept behind the data: From metadata models and labelling schemes towards a generic spectral library

Spectral libraries play a major role in imaging spectroscopy. They are commonly used to store end-member and spectrally pure material spectra, which are primarily used for mapping or unmixing purposes. However, the development of spectral libraries is time consuming and usually sensor and site dependent. Spectral libraries are therefore often developed, used and tailored only for a specific case study and only for one sensor. Multi-sensor and multi-site use of spectral libraries is difficult and requires technical effort for adaptation, transformation, and data harmonization steps. Especially the huge amount of urban material specifications and its spectral variations hamper the setup of a complete spectral library consisting of all available urban material spectra. By a combined use of different urban spectral libraries, besides the improvement of spectral inter- and intra-class variability, missing material spectra could be considered with respect to a multi-sensor/ -site use. Publicly available spectral libraries mostly lack the metadata information that is essential for describing spectra acquisition and sampling background, and can serve to some extent as a measure of quality and reliability of the spectra and the entire library itself. In the GenLib project, a concept for a generic, multi-site and multi-sensor usable spectral library for image spectra on the urban focus was developed. This presentation will introduce a 1) unified, easy-to-understand hierarchical labeling scheme combined with 2) a comprehensive metadata concept that is 3) implemented in the SPECCHIO spectral information system to promote the setup and usability of a generic urban spectral library (GUSL). The labelling scheme was developed to ensure the translation of individual spectral libraries with their own labelling schemes and their usually varying level of details into the GUSL framework. It is based on a modified version of the EAGLE classification concept by combining land use, land cover, land characteristics and spectral characteristics. The metadata concept consists of 59 mandatory and optional attributes that are intended to specify the spatial context, spectral library information, references, accessibility, calibration, preprocessing steps, and spectra specific information describing library spectra implemented in the GUSL. It was developed on the basis of existing metadata concepts and was subject of an expert survey. The metadata concept and the labelling scheme are implemented in the spectral information system SPECCHIO, which is used for sharing and holding GUSL spectra. It allows easy implementation of spectra as well as their specification with the proposed metadata information to extend the GUSL. Therefore, the proposed data model represents a first fundamental step towards a generic usable and continuously expandable spectral library for urban areas. The metadata concept and the labelling scheme also build the basis for the necessary adaptation and transformation steps of the GUSL in order to use it entirely or in excerpts for further multi-site and multi-sensor applications

Assessing the utility of geospatial technologies to investigate environmental change within lake systems

Over 50% of the world's population live within 3. km of rivers and lakes highlighting the on-going importance of freshwater resources to human health and societal well-being. Whilst covering c. 3.5% of the Earth's non-glaciated land mass, trends in the environmental quality of the world's standing waters (natural lakes and reservoirs) are poorly understood, at least in comparison with rivers, and so evaluation of their current condition and sensitivity to change are global priorities. Here it is argued that a geospatial approach harnessing existing global datasets, along with new generation remote sensing products, offers the basis to characterise trajectories of change in lake properties e.g., water quality, physical structure, hydrological regime and ecological behaviour. This approach furthermore provides the evidence base to understand the relative importance of climatic forcing and/or changing catchment processes, e.g. land cover and soil moisture data, which coupled with climate data provide the basis to model regional water balance and runoff estimates over time. Using examples derived primarily from the Danube Basin but also other parts of the World, we demonstrate the power of the approach and its utility to assess the sensitivity of lake systems to environmental change, and hence better manage these key resources in the future

Quantifying supraglacial debris thickness at local to regional scales

Supraglacial debris thickness is a key control on the surface energy balance of debris-covered glaciers, which are common in temperate mountain ranges around the world. As such, it is an important input variable to the sorts of models that are used to understand and predict glacier change, which are essential for determining future water supply in glacierised regions and glacier contributions to sea-level rise. However, to quantify supraglacial debris thickness is difficult: making direct measurements is laborious and existing remote sensing approaches have not been thoroughly validated, so there is a general paucity of supraglacial debris thickness data. This thesis investigates methods of quantifying supraglacial debris thickness at local to regional scales. First, it makes in-situ field measurements of debris thickness at the local scale on glaciers in the Himalaya and the European Alps by manual excavation and by ground-penetrating radar (GPR). Second, it uses some of these field measurements to test and develop thermal remote sensing approaches to quantifying supraglacial debris thickness at the glacier scale. Third, it uses a dynamic energy-balance model in an inverse approach to quantify debris thickness on the glaciers of three watersheds in High Mountain Asia from thermal satellite imagery and high-resolution meteorological reanalysis data. At the local scale, GPR is found to be useful for measuring supraglacial debris thickness accurately and precisely, at least in the range 0.16-4.9 m. Debris thickness is highly variable over horizontal distances of < 10 m on individual glaciers due to gravitational reworking, which necessarily implies higher sub-debris ice melt rates than if debris thickness was spatially invariable. At the glacier scale, thermal remote sensing approaches can reproduce field measurements, and remote sensing estimates of supraglacial debris thickness can be used successfully to model sub-debris melting. If well-distributed field measurements are available, supraglacial debris thickness should be extrapolated using remote sensing-derived pseudo daily mean surface temperatures. Otherwise, it should be determined iteratively by minimising the mismatch between remotely sensed surface temperatures, preferably from night-time thermal images, and surface temperatures determined using a dynamic energy-balance model. At the regional scale, thermal satellite imagery and high-resolution meteorological reanalysis data can be used to provide reasonable estimates of supraglacial debris thickness. However, modelled uncertainties are not always able to explain ground-truth measurements, and there is a tendency towards underestimation due to problems associated with supraglacial ponds and ice cliffs and the spatial resolution of input data. The findings of this thesis will lead to improvements in the quantification of supraglacial debris thickness at a range of scales and, therefore, in the understanding and prediction of glacier change in temperate mountain ranges.Funded by NERC DTP grant number NE/L002507/1. CASE sponsorship provided by Reynolds International Ltd

Remote Sensing of Environmental Changes in Cold Regions

This Special Issue gathers papers reporting recent advances in the remote sensing of cold regions. It includes contributions presenting improvements in modeling microwave emissions from snow, assessment of satellite-based sea ice concentration products, satellite monitoring of ice jam and glacier lake outburst floods, satellite mapping of snow depth and soil freeze/thaw states, near-nadir interferometric imaging of surface water bodies, and remote sensing-based assessment of high arctic lake environment and vegetation recovery from wildfire disturbances in Alaska. A comprehensive review is presented to summarize the achievements, challenges, and opportunities of cold land remote sensing

Assessing soil redistribution and sediment apportationment from different land uses: geospatial analysis and modelling in a mountain agroecosystem

Los agroecosistemas Mediterráneos de montaña han experimentado secularmente intervenciones de la actividad humana como la eliminación de bosques y la cubierta vegetal para el desarrollo y la expansión de la agricultura de secano destinada a la subsistencia de las comunidades locales. Su principal impacto ha sido el incremento de las superficies de terreno proclives a la erosión junto con el aumento de la exportación de sedimentos a los cauces acentuada en las últimas décadas con la mecanización agraria. Sin embargo, este proceso se invirtió a mediados del siglo XX debido a diversos cambios socioeconómicos y posteriormente a la política agraria común que provocaron un éxodo rural y el abandono de estos sistemas. Este abandono permitió la recuperación de la vegetación y la consiguiente variación en la cobertera vegetal. Estos factores junto con la intensificación agrícola y la repoblación forestal han afectado de manera significativa al comportamiento hidrológico, las propiedades del suelo y las tasas de exportación de sedimentos en los agroecosistemas de montaña mediterráneos. El objetivo principal de esta investigación es analizar el efecto de los cambios en los usos del suelo junto con el impacto de las diferentes prácticas agrícolas en la conectividad hidráulica, la redistribución del suelo, sus propiedades fisicoquímicas, así como en la procedencia de los sedimentos exportados a los cursos de agua. Para conseguir este objetivo, se seleccionó una cuenca de tamaño medio (23 km2) localizada en la parte central de la cuenca del Ebro (NE España), representativa de los agroecosistemas de las montañas mediterráneas. El área de estudio ha permanecido cultivada casi en su totalidad hasta principios del siglo pasado. Sin embargo, después del abandono acaecido en la década de los 60 sólo el 16.5% de la cuenca se ha mantenido cultivado mientras que las áreas forestales bien de repoblación o de revegetación han pasado a ocupar el 83.5% de la superficie de la cuenca.En esta investigación se han implementado diferentes técnicas y metodologías, las cuales se han agrupado en dos líneas principales. Por un lado aquellas que analizan la variación en la conectividad hidráulica, las propiedades del suelo, los cambios en la cubierta vegetal y las tasas de redistribución del suelo. Por otro, las englobadas en la técnica de fingerprinting para el rastreo de la procedencia de los sedimentos que llegan a los cursos de agua. En el primer grupo cabe destacar la creación de un índice de conectividad hidráulica y su análisis antes y después del abandono de tierras en la cuenca. Además, mediante el uso del radioisótopo 137Cs se han cuantificado las tasas de redistribución del suelo en los distintos usos y se han comparado con propiedades del suelo como el tamaño de partícula o la cantidad de materia orgánica. En tercer lugar, se llevó a cabo un análisis de la distribución espacial de las propiedades fisicoquímicas del suelo junto con algunos nutrientes como el carbono orgánico de suelo o el nitrógeno total. Finalmente, mediante el uso de imágenes de satélite se monitorizó el cambio que la cubierta vegetal ha experimentado en las últimas décadas, correlacionando a su vez estas imágenes con datos del contenido de carbono y nitrógeno.Por otro lado, para obtener la información acerca de cuáles son las áreas que exportan sedimentos a los cursos de agua se han aplicado métodos de vanguardia como la técnica de fingerprinting junto a modelos de desmezcla. Para ello se ha desarrollado un modelo de desmezcla como paquete de R denominado FingerPro. Además, ya que la técnica requiere de diferentes métodos estadísticos para la selección de los trazadores, aquellos más utilizados por la comunidad científica se han incluido en este paquete como funciones adicionales. Sin embargo, los métodos estadísticos clásicos presentan varias limitaciones, siendo la principal que el uso de un método u otro puede dar lugar a la selección de diferentes trazadores, resultando así diferentes resultados de los modelos. Para superar la limitación de los métodos estadísticos clásicos, se ha desarrollado un nuevo método de selección de trazadores que previene la inclusión de trazadores no conservativos y discordantes, mejorando las capacidades de los métodos previos. Finalmente, mediante el uso de estas técnicas con distintos tipos de trazadores tales como radionucleidos, geoquímica elemental, propiedades magnéticas e isótopos estables ha sido posible cuantificar el efecto de eventos extremos de tormenta, las prácticas agrícolas y la tala en los bosques de repoblación, así como su impacto en la variación de los aportes de sedimento y su procedencia.Las diferentes técnicas implementadas para cuantificar y modelar el efecto del abandono de tierras, la distribución espacial de usos del suelo y las prácticas asociadas a estos han dado lugar a conclusiones similares. Una de las principales conclusiones es que son las tierras de cultivo las que presentan menor contenido en nutrientes, experimentan mayores tasas de redistribución de suelo y las que producen una mayor exportación de sedimento a los cursos de agua. Además, se ha comprobado que las prácticas agrícolas son uno de los mayores desencadenantes del aumento en las exportaciones de sedimento y contaminantes a los cauces. También se observó que durante las tareas de clareo de los pinares de repoblación las áreas afectadas producen una mayor contribución de sedimentos a los cauces lo cual se pudo monitorizar gracias al uso pionero de los trazadores CSSI en ambientes Mediterráneos. Por otro lado, los resultados de esta investigación han evidenciado el gran impacto de eventos extremos de tormenta en términos de erosión en toda la cuenca, produciendo además una gran exportación de sedimentos constituyendo uno de los procesos de mayor afectación en los agroecosistemas mediterráneos de montaña.Los resultados obtenidos han permitido comprender el impacto de los cambios de l uso de la tierra en las propiedades del suelo y su redistribución, lo que es esencial para la gestión de la tierra en los frágiles agroecosistemas mediterráneos. La creación de un paquete de software libre junto con un método mejorado de selección de trazadores ha permitido rastrear con éxito la procedencia de los sedimentos exportados, lo cual no podría haberse logrado con los métodos convencionales. Además los resultados de la técnica de fingerprinting, resaltan los peligros de las tormentas excepcionales al incrementar en gran medida la exportación de partículas finas y modificar la contribución de las distintas fuentes de sedimento respaldando así la protección de las tierras de cultivo, especialmente en períodos de ausencia de cobertura vegetal y mayor ocurrencia de tormentas convectivas para evitar la pérdida de suelo fértil y la exportación de contaminantes a los cursos y cuerpos de agua aguas abajo.<br /