Identificación de las pérdidas y desperdicios en los eslabones de la cadena de valor del cacao en las provincias de Cotopaxi y Pastaza, Ecuador

In this article, we analyze the waste and losses in the links of the cocoa value chain in the provinces of Cotopaxi and Pastaza. To this aim, information on the volumes of cocoa production in each province was described. Subsequently, the impact of the 2020 pandemic on cocoa production was analyzed. For this,the Student's t contrast was applied to this variable in the aforementioned provinces. Finally, a description was made of the intensity with which waste and losses are generated in the main links corresponding to the value chain of cocoa production. It was determined that the links of collection and extraction of grains, as well as that of grafting, were the most representative in the waste of the value chain. In the same way, considerable losses were evidenced in the handling of the product and the pruning of diseases or pests. Keywords: Art, cocoa, value chain, product losses, waste. References [1]Sistema Nacional de Información, “Indicadores de cosecha y siembra,” Sistema Nacional de Información del Ecuador, June 2020. [2]C. Arévalo, E. Arévalo, F. Barraza, A. Farfán, Z. He, and V. Baligar, “Growth and nutritional responses of wild and domesticated cacao genotypes to soil Cd stress,” Sci. Total Environ., vol. 763, p. 144021, April 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144021. [3]J. Díaz, E. Varela, and J. Gil, “Livelihood strategies of cacao producers in Ecuador: Effects of national policies to support cacao farmers and specialty cacao landraces,” J. Rural Stud., vol. 63, pp. 141–156, August 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.08.004. [4]V. Barrera et al., La cadena de valor del cacao y el bienestar de los productores en la provincia de Manabí-Ecuador. Quito: ARCOIRIS Producciones Gráficas,May 2019. [5]C. Moreno, I. Molina, Z. Miranda, R. Moreno, and P. Moreno, “La Cadena de Valor de Cacao dn Ecuador: Una Propuesta de Estrategias para coadyuvar a la Sostenibilidad,”Bioagro, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 205–214, October 2020. [6]I. Cañadas, “Análisis de la cadena de suministro de cacao en el contexto de la Amazonia Ecuatoriana,” Rev.ECA Sinerg., vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 17–28, March 2019,[Online]. Available: https://revistas.utm.edu.ec/index.php/ECASinergia/article/view/1483/1983. [7]Banco Central del Ecuador, “La pandemia incidió en el crecimiento 2020: la economía ecuatoriana decreció 7,8%,” March 2021. https://www.bce.fin.ec/index.php/boletines-de-prensa-archivo/item/1421-la-pandemia-incidio-en-el-crecimiento-2020-la-economia-ecuatoriana-decrecio-7-8 (accessed Oct. 18, 2021). [8]Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, La cadena de valor del cacao en América Latina y el Caribe. Quito, PI, Ecuador, October 2019. [9]M. Vassallo, “Diferenciación y agregado de valor en la cadena ecuatoriana del cacao,” Instituto de Altos Estudios Nacionales (IAEN), Quito, PI, Ecuador, 2015. [10]E. Chavez et al., “Concentration of cadmium in cacao beans and its relationship with soil cadmium in southern Ecuador,” Sci. Total Environ., vol. 533, pp. 205–214, November 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv. 2015.06.106. [11]C. Kilelu, L. Klerkx, A. Omore, I. Baltenweck, C.Leeuwis, and J. Githinji, “Value chain upgrading and the inclusion of smallholders in markets: reflections oncontributions of multi-stakeholder processes in dairy development in Tanzania,” Eur. J. Dev. Res., vol. 29, no. 5, pp. 1102–1121, January 2017, doi: 10.1057/s41287-016-0074-z. [12]J. Rodríguez, C. Giménez, and D. Arenas, “Cooperative initiatives with NGOs in socially sustainable supply chains: How is inter-organizational fit achieved?,”J. Clean. Prod., vol. 137, pp. 516–526, November 2016, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.115. [13]S. Dubey, R. Singh, S. Singh, A. Mishra, and N. Singh, “A brief study of value chain and supply chain,” no. September, pp. 177–183, 2020. [14]M. Mujica, A. Makhloufi, and P. Scala, “On the logistics of cocoa supply chain in Côte d’Ivoire: Simulation-based analysis,” Comput. Ind. Eng., vol. 137, no.September, p. 106034, November 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.cie.2019.106034. [15]J. Palomeque and J. Lalangui, “Propuesta de una ruta turística bananera en base a la historia regional, provincia El Oro, de Ecuador,” Rev. Científica Univ. ySoc., vol. 8, no. 3, p. 150, September 2016. [16]L. German, A. Bonanno, L. Foster, and L. Cotula,“‘Inclusive business’ in agriculture: Evidence from the evolution of agricultural value chains,” WorldDev., vol. 134, October 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105018. [17]S. Lyon, T. Mutersbaugh, and H. Worthen “Constructing the female coffee farmer: Do corporate smart-economic initiatives promote gender equitywithin agricultural value chains?,” Econ. Anthropol., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 34–47, March 2019, doi: 10.1002/sea2.12129. [18]I. Kahupi, C. Eiríkur, O. Okorie, and S. Millette, “Building competitive advantage with sustainable products – A case study perspective of stakeholders,”J. Clean. Prod., vol. 289, p. 125699, March 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125699. [19]C. Maney, M. Sassen, and S. Hill, “Modelling biodiversity responses to land use in areas of cocoa cultivation,” Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., vol. 324, no.September 2021, p. 107712, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2021.107712. [20]M. Calle and M. Mendieta, “Estructura de la cadena del valor del cacao en el cantón Santa Rosa,” Tesis de grado, Universidad de Cuenca, Cuenca, AZ, Ecuador, 2014. [21]S. Barrezueta, W. Moreira, and C. Quezada, “Análisis del cacao y café ecuatoriano desde su cadena de valor,” Rev. Científica Agroecosistemas, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 7–17, December 2018, [Online]. Available: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330520473_Analisis_del_cacao_y_cafe_ecuatoriano_desde_su_cadena_de_valor_en_el_periodo_2010-2015. [22]M. Torres et al., “Diversidad de Trichoderma en el agroecosistema cacao del estado de Tabasco, México,” Rev. Mex. Biodivers., vol. 86, no. 4, pp. 947–961, November 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.rmb.2015.07.012. [23] J. Zambrano and E. Chávez, Diagnóstico del estado del arte de la cadena de valor del cacao en América Latina y el Caribe. Quito: Instituto Nacional Autónomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP) de Ecuador, 2018. [24]F. Barraza et al., “Beyond cadmium accumulation: Distribution of other trace elements in soils and cacao beans in Ecuador,” Environ. Res., vol. 192, no. September 2020, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.110241. [25]F. Barraza et al., “Cadmium bioaccumulation and gastric bioaccessibility in cacao: A field study in areas impacted by oil activities in Ecuador,” Environ. Pollut., vol. 229, pp. 950–963, December 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.080. [26]M. Tardzenyuy, Z. Jianguo, T. Akyene, and M. Mbuwel, “Improving cocoa beans value chain using a local convection dryer: A case study of Fako division Cameroon.,” Sci. African, vol. 8, p. e00343, July 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00343. [27]D. Argüello, E. Chavez, F. Lauryssen, R. Vanderschueren, E. Smolders, and D. Montalvo, “Soil properties and agronomic factors affecting cadmium concentrations in cacao beans: A nationwide survey in Ecuador,” Sci. Total Environ., vol. 649, pp. 120–127, February 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.292. [28]E. Arévalo et al., “Cacao agroforestry management systems effects on soil fungi diversity in the Peruvian Amazon,” Ecol. Indic., vol. 115, no. April, p. 106404, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106404. [29]J. Rodriguez and A. Pierdant, Estadística para administración. México D.F.: Grupo Editorial Patria, 2015. [30]Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, “Productivo,” 2021. http://sipa.agricultura.gob.ec/index.php/sipa-estadisticas/estadisticas-productivas (accessed November 22, 2021). [31]J. Quito, “Biochar como enmienda edáfica para bajar los niveles de absorción de cadmio en Cacao (Theobroma Cacao L) Cultivar CCN-51,” Tesis de grado, Universidad Técnica de Machala, Machala, Ecuador, December 2020.      En el presente artículo se analizan los desperdicios y pérdidas en los eslabones de la cadena de valor del cacao en las provincias del Ecuador Cotopaxi y Pastaza. Para ello, se describieron los volúmenes de producción de cacao de cada provincia. Posteriormente, se analizó la afectación de la pandemia de 2020 en la producción. Para esto se aplicó el contraste T de Student, a dicha variable. Finalmente, se realizó una descripción de la intensidad con la que se generan los desperdicios y pérdidas en los principales eslabones de la cadena de valor de la producción cacaotera. Se determinó que los eslabones de recolección y extracción de granos, así como el de injertación fueron los de mayor representatividad en los desperdicios de la cadena de valor. De igual manera, se evidenciaron pérdidas considerables en el de manejo del producto y en la poda de las plantas por enfermedades o plagas. Palabras Clave: Cacao, cadena de valor, pérdidas, desperdicios Referencias [1]Sistema Nacional de Información, “Indicadores de cosecha y siembra,” Sistema Nacional de Información del Ecuador, June 2020. [2]C. Arévalo, E. Arévalo, F. Barraza, A. Farfán, Z. He, y V. Baligar, “Growth and nutritional responses of wild and domesticated cacao genotypes to soil Cd stress,” Sci. Total Environ., vol. 763, p. 144021, April 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144021. [3]J. Díaz, E. Varela, y J. Gil, “Livelihood strategies of cacao producers in Ecuador: Effects of national policies to support cacao farmers and specialty cacao landraces,” J. Rural Stud., vol. 63, pp. 141–156, August 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.08.004. [4]V. Barrera et al., La cadena de valor del cacao y el bienestar de los productores en la provincia de Manabí-Ecuador. Quito: ARCOIRIS Producciones Gráficas,May 2019. [5]C. Moreno, I. Molina, Z. Miranda, R. Moreno, y P. Moreno, “La Cadena de Valor de Cacao dn Ecuador: Una Propuesta de Estrategias para coadyuvar a la Sostenibilidad,”Bioagro, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 205–214, October 2020. [6]I. Cañadas, “Análisis de la cadena de suministro de cacao en el contexto de la Amazonia Ecuatoriana,” Rev.ECA Sinerg., vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 17–28, March 2019,[Online]. Available: https://revistas.utm.edu.ec/index.php/ECASinergia/article/view/1483/1983. [7]Banco Central del Ecuador, “La pandemia incidió en el crecimiento 2020: la economía ecuatoriana decreció 7,8%,” March 2021. https://www.bce.fin.ec/index.php/boletines-de-prensa-archivo/item/1421-la-pandemia-incidio-en-el-crecimiento-2020-la-economia-ecuatoriana-decrecio-7-8 (accessed Oct. 18, 2021). [8]Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, La cadena de valor del cacao en América Latina y el Caribe. Quito, PI, Ecuador, October 2019. [9]M. Vassallo, “Diferenciación y agregado de valor en la cadena ecuatoriana del cacao,” Instituto de Altos Estudios Nacionales (IAEN), Quito, PI, Ecuador, 2015. [10]E. Chavez et al., “Concentration of cadmium in cacao beans and its relationship with soil cadmium in southern Ecuador,” Sci. Total Environ., vol. 533, pp. 205–214, November 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv. 2015.06.106. [11]C. Kilelu, L. Klerkx, A. Omore, I. Baltenweck, C.Leeuwis, y J. Githinji, “Value chain upgrading and the inclusion of smallholders in markets: reflections oncontributions of multi-stakeholder processes in dairy development in Tanzania,” Eur. J. Dev. Res., vol. 29, no. 5, pp. 1102–1121, January 2017, doi: 10.1057/s41287-016-0074-z. [12]J. Rodríguez, C. Giménez, y D. Arenas, “Cooperative initiatives with NGOs in socially sustainable supply chains: How is inter-organizational fit achieved?,”J. Clean. Prod., vol. 137, pp. 516–526, November 2016, doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.115. [13]S. Dubey, R. Singh, S. Singh, A. Mishra, y N. Singh, “A brief study of value chain and supply chain,” no. September, pp. 177–183, 2020. [14]M. Mujica, A. Makhloufi, y P. Scala, “On the logistics of cocoa supply chain in Côte d’Ivoire: Simulation-based analysis,” Comput. Ind. Eng., vol. 137, no.September, p. 106034, November 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.cie.2019.106034. [15]J. Palomeque y J. Lalangui, “Propuesta de una ruta turística bananera en base a la historia regional, provincia El Oro, de Ecuador,” Rev. Científica Univ. ySoc., vol. 8, no. 3, p. 150, September 2016. [16]L. German, A. Bonanno, L. Foster, y L. Cotula,“‘Inclusive business’ in agriculture: Evidence from the evolution of agricultural value chains,” WorldDev., vol. 134, October 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105018. [17]S. Lyon, T. Mutersbaugh, y H. Worthen “Constructing the female coffee farmer: Do corporate smart-economic initiatives promote gender equitywithin agricultural value chains?,” Econ. Anthropol., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 34–47, March 2019, doi: 10.1002/sea2.12129. [18]I. Kahupi, C. Eiríkur, O. Okorie, y S. Millette, “Building competitive advantage with sustainable products – A case study perspective of stakeholders,”J. Clean. Prod., vol. 289, p. 125699, March 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.125699. [19]C. Maney, M. Sassen, y S. Hill, “Modelling biodiversity responses to land use in areas of cocoa cultivation,” Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., vol. 324, no.September 2021, p. 107712, 2022, doi: 10.1016/j.agee.2021.107712. [20]M. Calle y M. Mendieta, “Estructura de la cadena del valor del cacao en el cantón Santa Rosa,” Tesis de grado, Universidad de Cuenca, Cuenca, AZ, Ecuador, 2014. [21]S. Barrezueta, W. Moreira, y C. Quezada, “Análisis del cacao y café ecuatoriano desde su cadena de valor,” Rev. Científica Agroecosistemas, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 7–17, December 2018, [Online]. Available: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330520473_Analisis_del_cacao_y_cafe_ecuatoriano_desde_su_cadena_de_valor_en_el_periodo_2010-2015. [22]M. Torres et al., “Diversidad de Trichoderma en el agroecosistema cacao del estado de Tabasco, México,” Rev. Mex. Biodivers., vol. 86, no. 4, pp. 947–961, November 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.rmb.2015.07.012. [23] J. Zambrano y E. Chávez, Diagnóstico del estado del arte de la cadena de valor del cacao en América Latina y el Caribe. Quito: Instituto Nacional Autónomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP) de Ecuador, 2018. [24]F. Barraza et al., “Beyond cadmium accumulation: Distribution of other trace elements in soils and cacao beans in Ecuador,” Environ. Res., vol. 192, no. September 2020, 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.110241. [25]F. Barraza et al., “Cadmium bioaccumulation and gastric bioaccessibility in cacao: A field study in areas impacted by oil activities in Ecuador,” Environ. Pollut., vol. 229, pp. 950–963, December 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.07.080. [26]M. Tardzenyuy, Z. Jianguo, T. Akyene, y M. Mbuwel, “Improving cocoa beans value chain using a local convection dryer: A case study of Fako division Cameroon.,” Sci. African, vol. 8, p. e00343, July 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00343. [27]D. Argüello, E. Chavez, F. Lauryssen, R. Vanderschueren, E. Smolders, y D. Montalvo, “Soil properties and agronomic factors affecting cadmium concentrations in cacao beans: A nationwide survey in Ecuador,” Sci. Total Environ., vol. 649, pp. 120–127, February 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.292. [28]E. Arévalo et al., “Cacao agroforestry management systems effects on soil fungi diversity in the Peruvian Amazon,” Ecol. Indic., vol. 115, no. April, p. 106404, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106404. [29]J. Rodriguez y A. Pierdant, Estadística para administración. México D.F.: Grupo Editorial Patria, 2015. [30]Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería, “Productivo,” 2021. http://sipa.agricultura.gob.ec/index.php/sipa-estadisticas/estadisticas-productivas (accessed November 22, 2021). [31]J. Quito, “Biochar como enmienda edáfica para bajar los niveles de absorción de cadmio en Cacao (Theobroma Cacao L) Cultivar CCN-51,” Tesis de grado, Universidad Técnica de Machala, Machala, Ecuador, December 2020. &nbsp

Long-term Follow up of Van Nes Rotationplasty for Congenital Proximal Focal Femoral Deficiency

Van Nes rotationplasty may be used for patients with congenital proximal focal femoral deficiency (PFFD). The lower limb is rotated to use the ankle and foot as a functional knee joint within a prosthesis. A small series of cases was investigated to determine the long-term outcome. At a mean of 21.5 years (11 to 45) after their rotationplasty, a total of 12 prosthetic patients completed the Short-Form (SF)-36, Faces Pain Scale-Revised, Harris hip score, Oswestry back pain score and Prosthetic Evaluation Questionnaires, as did 12 age- and gender-matched normal control participants. A physical examination and gait analysis, computerised dynamic posturography (CDP), and timed ‘Up & Go’ testing was also completed. Wilcoxon Signed rank test was used to compare each PFFD patient with a matched control participant with false discovery rate of 5%. There were no differences between the groups in overall health and well-being on the SF-36. Significant differences were seen in gait parameters in the PFFD group. Using CDP, the PFFD group had reduced symmetry in stance, and reduced end point and maximum excursions. Patients who had undergone Van Nes rotationplasty had a high level of function and quality of life at long-term follow-up, but presented with significant differences in gait and posture compared with the control group

The first nine years of \u27accounting history\u27 : 1996 to 2004

This paper adds to the prior literature examining publishing patterns in the accounting history discipline by undertaking a content analysis of publications in the first nine years of the new series of the journal Accounting History. The paper commences by providing an historical background to the introduction of the new series of the journal and the journal\u27s editorial team. This is followed by an authorship analysis of the journal\u27s research publications. This analysis examines patterns of authorship (single and multi-authored papers), the journal\u27s most published authors, institutional and geographical affiliations of authors (including international collaboration and changes over the nine year period) and author gender.<br /

Dermatology residency selection criteria with an emphasis on program characteristics: a national program director survey.

Background. Dermatology residency programs are relatively diverse in their resident selection process. The authors investigated the importance of 25 dermatology residency selection criteria focusing on differences in program directors' (PDs') perception based on specific program demographics. Methods. This cross-sectional nationwide observational survey utilized a 41-item questionnaire that was developed by literature search, brainstorming sessions, and online expert reviews. The data were analyzed utilizing the reliability test, two-step clustering, and K-means methods as well as other methods. The main purpose of this study was to investigate the differences in PDs' perception regarding the importance of the selection criteria based on program demographics. Results. Ninety-five out of 114 PDs (83.3%) responded to the survey. The top five criteria for dermatology residency selection were interview, letters of recommendation, United States Medical Licensing Examination Step I scores, medical school transcripts, and clinical rotations. The following criteria were preferentially ranked based on different program characteristics: "advanced degrees," "interest in academics," "reputation of undergraduate and medical school," "prior unsuccessful attempts to match," and "number of publications." Conclusions. Our survey provides up-to-date factual data on dermatology PDs' perception in this regard. Dermatology residency programs may find the reported data useful in further optimizing their residency selection process

Cobertura de las elecciones de abril de 1975 en el Diário de Notícias y el Jornal Novo: un caso de estudio

The Portuguese Revolution of April 1974 ended 48 years of dictatorship. The political evolution that followed the coup gave rise to a revolutionary process, the On-Going Revolutionary Period, which gained momentum, after March 11, 1975, opening "the path to socialism". As a side effect, the state became the owner of almost all the press. The first democratic elections took place on April 25, 1975. For the first time in almost 50 years, the press had the opportunity to do the cover in an environment of freedom of expression. However, the media were not immune to the revolutionary process and the newspapers were affected by the struggle for control of the information. The purpose of this study is a first approach in order to understand the news process and strategies to cover the electoral campaign in the press. The methodology will rely on a comparative analysis of the journalist formats in Diário de Notícas and Jornal Novo, chosen for de difference of each journalistic format and almost opposite editorial status.La Revolución portuguesa de abril de 1974 puso fin a 48 años de dictadura. La evolución política del golpe militar dio paso a un proceso revolucionario, Proceso Revolucionario en Curso, que cobró impulso, después del 11 de marzo de 1975, abriendo así "el camino al socialismo". Como efecto colateral, el Estado se convirtió en el propietario de casi toda la prensa, que pertenecía parcial o totalmente a empresas bancarias y grupos económicos. Las primeras elecciones democráticas tuvieron lugar el 25 de abril de 1975 y la prensa tuvo la oportunidad de cubrir este momento histórico en un ambiente de libertad de expresión. El propósito de este estudio es un primer abordaje para comprender el proceso de noticias y las estrategias para cubrir la campaña electoral en la prensa. La metodología se basará en un análisis comparativo de los formatos periodísticos en Diário de Notícias y Jornal Novo, justamente escogidos por la diferencia de dimensión y capacidad noticiosa y su estatuto editorial casi opuesto

Acceleration in the bilingual acquisition of phonological structure: evidence from Polish–English bilingual children

This study examines the production of consonant clusters in simultaneous Polish-English bilingual children and in language-matched English monolinguals (aged 7;01- 8;11). Selection of the language pair was based on the fact that Polish allows a greater range of phonologically complex cluster types than English. A nonword repetition task was devised in order to examine clusters of different types (obstruent-liquid vs. s + obstruent) and in different word positions (initial vs. medial), two factors that play a significant role in repetition accuracy in monolingual acquisition (e.g. Kirk & Demuth, 2005). Our findings show that bilingual children outperformed monolingual controls in the word initial s + obstruent condition. These results indicate that exposure to complex word initial clusters (in Polish) can accelerate the development of less phonologically complex clusters (in English). This constitutes significant new evidence that the facilitatory effects of bilingual acquisition extend to structural phonological domains

Bibliometric studies on single journals: a review

This paper covers a total of 82 bibliometric studies on single journals (62 studies cover unique titles) published between 1998 and 2008 grouped into the following fields; Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences (12 items); Medical and Health Sciences (19 items); Sciences and Technology (30 items) and Library and Information Sciences (21 items). Under each field the studies are described in accordance to their geographical location in the following order, United Kingdom, United States and Americana, Europe, Asia (India, Africa and Malaysia). For each study, elements described are (a) the journal’s publication characteristics and indexation information; (b) the objectives; (c) the sampling and bibliometric measures used; and (d) the results observed. A list of journal titles studied is appended. The results show that (a)bibliometric studies cover journals in various fields; (b) there are several revisits of some journals which are considered important; (c) Asian and African contributions is high (41.4 of total studies; 43.5 covering unique titles), United States (30.4 of total; 31.0 on unique titles), Europe (18.2 of total and 14.5 on unique titles) and the United Kingdom (10 of total and 11 on unique titles); (d) a high number of bibliometrists are Indians and as such coverage of Indian journals is high (28 of total studies; 30.6 of unique titles); and (e) the quality of the journals and their importance either nationally or internationally are inferred from their indexation status