Sustainable Traffic Aware Duty-Cycle Adaptation in Harvested Multi-Hop Wireless Sensor Networks

International audienceSustainable power management techniques in energy harvesting wireless sensors currently adapt the consumption of sensors to their harvesting rate within the limits of their battery residual energy, but regardless of the traffic profile. To provide a fairer distribution of the energy according to application needs, we propose a new sustainable traffic aware duty-cycle adaptation scheme (STADA) that takes into account the traffic load in addition to previous factors. We evaluate our protocol in the specific context of multi-hop IEEE 802.15.4 beacon-enabled wireless sensor networks powered by solar energy. Simulations show that our solution outperforms traffic-unaware adaptation schemes while minimizing the variance of the quality of service provided to applications

Energy saving and reliability for Wireless Body Sensor Networks (WBSN)

In healthcare and medical applications, the energy consumption of biosensor nodes affects the collection of biomedical data packets, which are sensed and measured from the human body and then transmitted toward the sink node. Nodes that are near to the sink node consume more energy as all biomedical packets are aggregated through these nodes when communicated to sink node. Each biosensor node in a wireless body sensor networks (WBSNs) such as ECG (Electrocardiogram), should provide accurate biomedical data due to the paramount importance of patient information. We propose a technique to minimise energy consumed by biosensor nodes in the bottleneck zone for WBSNs, which applies the Coordinated Duty Cycle Algorithm (CDCA) to all nodes in the bottleneck zone. Superframe order (SO) selection in CDCA is based on real traffic and the priority of the nodes in the WBSN. Furthermore, we use a special case of network coding, called Random Linear Network coding (RLNC), to encode the biomedical packets to improve reliability through calculating the probability of successful reception (PSR) at the sink node. It can be concluded that CDCA outperforms other algorithms in terms of energy saving as it achieves energy savings for most biosensor nodes in WBSNs. RLNC employs relay nodes to achieve the required level of reliability in WBSNs and to guarantee that the biomedical data is delivered correctly to the sink nod

DADC: A Novel Duty-cycling Scheme for IEEE 802.15.4 Cluster-tree-based IoT Applications

[EN] The IEEE 802.15.4 standard is one of the widely adopted specifications for realizing different applications of the Internet of Things. It defines several physical layer options and Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayer for devices with low-power operating at low data rates. As devices implementing this standard are primarily battery-powered, minimizing their power consumption is a significant concern. Duty-cycling is one such power conserving mechanism that allows a device to schedule its active and inactive radio periods effectively, thus preventing energy drain due to idle listening. The standard specifies two parameters, beacon order and superframe order, which define the active and inactive period of a device. However, it does not specify a duty-cycling scheme to adapt these parameters for varying network conditions. Existing works in this direction are either based on superframe occupation ratio or buffer/queue length of devices. In this article, the particular limitations of both the approaches mentioned above are presented. Later, a novel duty-cycling mechanism based on MAC parameters is proposed. Also, we analyze the role of synchronization schemes in achieving efficient duty-cycles in synchronized cluster-tree network topologies. A Markov model has also been developed for the MAC protocol to estimate the delay and energy consumption during frame transmission.This work is supported by Science and Engineering Research Board, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India under ECR 2016, Grant No. 2016/001651. This work has been partially supported by the "Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad" in the "Programa Estatal de Fomento de la Investigacion Cientifica y Tecnica de Excelencia," "Subprograma Estatal de Generacion de Conocimiento," within the project under Grant No. TIN2017-84802-C2-1-P. This work has also been partially supported by European Union through the ERANETMED (Euromediterranean Cooperation through ERANET joint activities and beyond) Project ERANETMED3-227 SMARTWATIR.Choudhury, N.; Matam, R.; Mukherjee, M.; Lloret, J. (2021). DADC: A Novel Duty-cycling Scheme for IEEE 802.15.4 Cluster-tree-based IoT Applications. ACM Transactions on Internet Technology. 22(2). https://doi.org/10.1145/3409487S22

QoS Supportive MAC Protocols for WSNs: Review and Evaluation

The use of wireless sensor networks technology is growing in different applications of monitoring. Since it is a relatively new technology, the interest of researchers to improve the network performance and behaviour has been enormous. In this context, new resource allocation scheme that takes into account traffic priority and load has been introduced. The evaluation of this scheme is intended to be achieved by implementing a custom simulator. This report discusses and evaluates all the important concerns needed to be considered during the development of this project. Moreover, this work also reviews the related literature in order to afford optimisations to the scheme

A survey of IEEE 802.15.4 effective system parameters for wireless body sensor networks

This is the peer reviewed version of the following article: Moravejosharieh, Amirhossein, Lloret, Jaime. (2016). A survey of IEEE 802.15.4 effective system parameters for wireless body sensor networks.International Journal of Communication Systems, 29, 7, 1269-1292. DOI: 10.1002/dac.3098, which has been published in final form at http://doi.org/10.1002/dac.3098. This article may be used for non-commercial purposes in accordance with Wiley Terms and Conditions for Self-Archiving[EN] Wireless body sensor networks are offered to meet the requirements of a diverse set of applications such as health-related and well-being applications. For instance, they are deployed to measure, fetch and collect human body vital signs. Such information could be further used for diagnosis and monitoring of medical conditions. IEEE 802.15.4 is arguably considered as a well-designed standard protocol to address the need for low-rate, low-power and low-cost wireless body sensor networks. Apart from the vast deployment of this technology, there are still some challenges and issues related to the performance of the medium access control (MAC) protocol of this standard that are required to be addressed. This paper comprises two main parts. In the first part, the survey has provided a thorough assessment of IEEE 802.15.4 MAC protocol performance where its functionality is evaluated considering a range of effective system parameters, that is, some of the MAC and application parameters and the impact of mutual interference. The second part of this paper is about conducting a simulation study to determine the influence of varying values of the system parameters on IEEE 802.15.4 performance gains. More specifically, we explore the dependability level of IEEE 802.5.4 performance gains on a candidate set of system parameters. Finally, this paper highlights the tangible needs to conduct more investigations on particular aspect(s) of IEEE 802.15.4 MAC protocol. Copyright (c) 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.Moravejosharieh, A.; Lloret, J. (2016). A survey of IEEE 802.15.4 effective system parameters for wireless body sensor networks. International Journal of Communication Systems. 29(7):1269-1292. https://doi.org/10.1002/dac.3098S12691292297Alrajeh, N. A., Lloret, J., & Canovas, A. (2014). A Framework for Obesity Control Using a Wireless Body Sensor Network. International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks, 10(7), 534760. doi:10.1155/2014/534760Lopes I Silva B Rodrigues J Lloret J Proenca M A mobile health monitoring solution for weight control International Conference on Wireless Communications and Signal Processing (WCSP) Nanjing / China 2011 1 5Singh, N., Singh, A. K., & Singh, V. K. (2015). Design and performance of wearable ultrawide band textile antenna for medical applications. Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, 57(7), 1553-1557. doi:10.1002/mop.29131Lan, K., Chou, C.-M., Wang, T., & Li, M.-W. (2012). 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Joint Scheduling and Duty Cycle Control Framework for Hierarchical Machine-to-Machine Communication Networks.

PhDThis thesis presents a novel distributed optimisation framework for machine-tomachine (M2M) communication networks with dynamic traffic generation, heterogeneous applications and different device capabilities. The aim of the framework is to effectively manage the massive access of energy constrained M2M devices while satisfying different application requirements. The proposed framework has three control blocks which run at cluster heads and M2M gateways: i) The distributed duty cycle control that adapts to dynamic network traffics for IEEE 802.15.4 MAC layer protocol with stop-and-wait automatic repeat request (ARQ) and Go-Back-N ARQ schemes. ii) The cluster head control that applies dynamic programming (DP) and approximate dynamic programming (ADP) techniques to maximise single cluster utility while balancing the tradeoff between system performance and algorithm complexity. iii) The gateway control that applies network utility optimisation (NUM) and mixed integer programming (MIP) techniques to maximise the aggregated long-term network utility while satisfying different application requirements among clusters. Both theoretical and practical concerns are addressed by the proposed control framework. Simulation results show that the proposed framework effectively improve the overall network performance in terms of network throughput, energy efficiency, end-to-end delay and packet drop ratio.Chinese Scholarship Council (CSC)

QoS-Aware Joint Access Control and Duty Cycle Control for Machine-to-Machine Communications

Massive devices and various applications imposes new challenges for Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communications to enable Internet of Things (IoT). In this paper, we investigate a QoS-aware joint access control and duty cycle control problem for M2M communications to optimise the overall network performance, including energy efficiency, end-to-end delay, reliability, throughput and fairness. We first model a practical hybrid M2M communication network and measure the overall network performance through a cost function. Then, an optimisation problem is formulated to minimise the long-term aggregated network cost. Further more, we overcome the non-convexity of the cost function and mathematically derive the optimal access control. Finally, we propose a distributed access control followed by a reinforcement learning (RL) based duty cycle control which adapts to various network dynamics without priori network information. Simulation results show that, the proposed joint access control and duty cycle control minimise the network long-term aggregated cost, while achieving fairness among cluster heads with QoS differentiation

Modelling, analysis and design of MAC and routing protocols for wireless body area sensor networks.

The main contribution of the thesis is to provide modeling, analysis, and design for Medium Access Control (MAC) and link-quality based routing protocols of Wireless Body Area Sensor Networks (WBASNs) for remote patient monitoring applications by considering saturated and un-saturated traffic scenarios. The design of these protocols has considered the stringent Quality of Service (QoS) requirements of patient monitoring systems. Moreover, the thesis also provides intelligent routing metrics for packet forwarding mechanisms while considering the integration of WBASNs with the Internet of Things (IoTs). First, we present the numerical modeling of the slotted Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) for the IEEE 802.15.4 and IEEE 802.15.6 standards. By using this modelling, we proposed a MAC layer mechanism called Delay, Reliability and Throughput (DRT) profile for the IEEE 802.15.4 and IEEE 802.15.6, which jointly optimize the QoS in terms of limited delay, reliability, efficient channel access and throughput by considering the requirements of patient monitoring system under different frequency bands including 420 MHz, 868 MHz and 2.4 GHz. Second, we proposed a duty-cycle based energy efficient adaptive MAC layer mechanism called Tele-Medicine Protocol (TMP) by considering the limited delay and reliability for patient monitoring systems. The proposed energy efficient protocol is designed by combining two optimizations methods: MAC layer parameter tuning and duty cycle-based optimization. The duty cycle is adjusted by using three factors: offered network traffic load, DRT profile and superframe duration. Third, a frame aggregation scheme called Aggregated-MAC Protocol Data Unit (A- MPDU) is proposed for the IEEE 802.15.4. A-MPDU provides high throughput and efficient channel access mechanism for periodic data transmission by considering the specified QoS requirements of the critical patient monitoring systems. To implement the scheme accurately, we developed a traffic pattern analysis to understand the requirements of the sensor nodes in patient monitoring systems. Later, we mapped the requirements on the existing MAC to find the performance gap. Fourth, empirical reliability assessment is done to validate the wireless channel characteristics of the low-power radios for successful deployment of WBASNs/IoTs based link quality routing protocols. A Test-bed is designed to perform the empirical experiments for the identification of the actual link quality estimation for different hospital environments. For evaluation of the test-bed, we considered parameters including Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI), Link Quality Indicator (LQI), packet reception and packet error rate. Finally, there is no standard under Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) which provides the integration of the IEEE 802.15.6 with IPv6 networks so that WBASNs could become part of IoTs. For this, an IETF draft is proposed which highlights the problem statement and solution for this integration. The discussion is provided in Appendix B

Congestion and medium access control in 6LoWPAN WSN

In computer networks, congestion is a condition in which one or more egressinterfaces are offered more packets than are forwarded at any given instant [1]. In wireless sensor networks, congestion can cause a number of problems including packet loss, lower throughput and poor energy efficiency. These problems can potentially result in a reduced deployment lifetime and underperforming applications. Moreover, idle radio listening is a major source of energy consumption therefore low-power wireless devices must keep their radio transceivers off to maximise their battery lifetime. In order to minimise energy consumption and thus maximise the lifetime of wireless sensor networks, the research community has made significant efforts towards power saving medium access control protocols with Radio Duty Cycling. However, careful study of previous work reveals that radio duty cycle schemes are often neglected during the design and evaluation of congestion control algorithms. This thesis argues that the presence (or lack) of radio duty cycle can drastically influence the performance of congestion control mechanisms. To investigate if previous findings regarding congestion control are still applicable in IPv6 over low power wireless personal area and duty cycling networks; some of the most commonly used congestion detection algorithms are evaluated through simulations. The research aims to develop duty cycle aware congestion control schemes for IPv6 over low power wireless personal area networks. The proposed schemes must be able to maximise the networks goodput, while minimising packet loss, energy consumption and packet delay. Two congestion control schemes, namely DCCC6 (Duty Cycle-Aware Congestion Control for 6LoWPAN Networks) and CADC (Congestion Aware Duty Cycle MAC) are proposed to realise this claim. DCCC6 performs congestion detection based on a dynamic buffer. When congestion occurs, parent nodes will inform the nodes contributing to congestion and rates will be readjusted based on a new rate adaptation scheme aiming for local fairness. The child notification procedure is decided by DCCC6 and will be different when the network is duty cycling. When the network is duty cycling the child notification will be made through unicast frames. On the contrary broadcast frames will be used for congestion notification when the network is not duty cycling. Simulation and test-bed experiments have shown that DCCC6 achieved higher goodput and lower packet loss than previous works. Moreover, simulations show that DCCC6 maintained low energy consumption, with average delay times while it achieved a high degree of fairness. CADC, uses a new mechanism for duty cycle adaptation that reacts quickly to changing traffic loads and patterns. CADC is the first dynamic duty cycle pro- tocol implemented in Contiki Operating system (OS) as well as one of the first schemes designed based on the arbitrary traffic characteristics of IPv6 wireless sensor networks. Furthermore, CADC is designed as a stand alone medium access control scheme and thus it can easily be transfered to any wireless sensor network architecture. Additionally, CADC does not require any time synchronisation algorithms to operate at the nodes and does not use any additional packets for the exchange of information between the nodes (For example no overhead). In this research, 10000 simulation experiments and 700 test-bed experiments have been conducted for the evaluation of CADC. These experiments demonstrate that CADC can successfully adapt its cycle based on traffic patterns in every traffic scenario. Moreover, CADC consistently achieved the lowest energy consumption, very low packet delay times and packet loss, while its goodput performance was better than other dynamic duty cycle protocols and similar to the highest goodput observed among static duty cycle configurations