RandomBoost: Simplified Multi-class Boosting through Randomization

We propose a novel boosting approach to multi-class classification problems, in which multiple classes are distinguished by a set of random projection matrices in essence. The approach uses random projections to alleviate the proliferation of binary classifiers typically required to perform multi-class classification. The result is a multi-class classifier with a single vector-valued parameter, irrespective of the number of classes involved. Two variants of this approach are proposed. The first method randomly projects the original data into new spaces, while the second method randomly projects the outputs of learned weak classifiers. These methods are not only conceptually simple but also effective and easy to implement. A series of experiments on synthetic, machine learning and visual recognition data sets demonstrate that our proposed methods compare favorably to existing multi-class boosting algorithms in terms of both the convergence rate and classification accuracy.Comment: 15 page

combining multimodal external resources for event-based news video retrieval and question answering

Ph.DDOCTOR OF PHILOSOPH

Object detection and segmentation using discriminative learning

Object detection and segmentation algorithms need to use prior knowledge of objects' shape and appearance to guide solutions to correct ones. A promising way of obtaining prior knowledge is to learn it directly from expert annotations by using machine learning techniques. Previous approaches commonly use generative learning approaches to achieve this goal. In this dissertation, I propose a series of discriminative learning algorithms based on boosting principles to learn prior knowledge from image databases with expert annotations. The learned knowledge improves the performance of detection and segmentation, leading to fast and accurate solutions. For object detection, I present a learning procedure called a Probabilistic Boosting Network (PBN) suitable for real-time object detection and pose estimation. Based on the law of total probability, PBN integrates evidence from two building blocks, namely a multiclass classifier for pose estimation and a detection cascade for object detection. Both the classifier and detection cascade employ boosting. By inferring the pose parameter, I avoid the exhaustive scan over pose parameters, which hampers real-time detection. I implement PBN using a graph-structured network that alternates the two tasks of object detection and pose estimation in an effort to reject negative cases as quickly as possible. Compared with previous approaches, PBN has higher accuracy in object localization and pose estimation with noticeable reduced computation. For object segmentation, I cast deformable object segmentation as optimizing the conditional probability density function p(C|I), where I is an image and C is a vector of model parameters describing the object shape. I propose a regression approach to learn the density p(C|I) discriminatively based on boosting principles. The learned density p(C|I) possesses a desired unimodal, smooth shape, which can be used by optimization algorithms to efficiently estimate a solution. To handle the high-dimensional learning challenges, I propose a multi-level approach and a gradient-based sampling strategy to learn regression functions efficiently. I show that the regression approach consistently outperforms state-of-the-art methods on a variety of testing datasets. Finally, I present a comparative study on how to apply three discriminative learning approaches - classification, regression, and ranking - to deformable shape segmentation. I discuss how to extend the idea of the regression approach to build discriminative models using classification and ranking. I propose sampling strategies to collect training examples from a high-dimensional model space for the classification and the ranking approach. I also propose a ranking algorithm based on Rankboost to learn a discriminative model for segmentation. Experimental results on left ventricle and left atrium segmentation from ultrasound images and facial feature localization demonstrate that the discriminative models outperform generative models and energy minimization methods by a large margin

Unsupervised quantification of entity consistency between photos and text in real-world news

Das World Wide Web und die sozialen Medien übernehmen im heutigen Informationszeitalter eine wichtige Rolle für die Vermittlung von Nachrichten und Informationen. In der Regel werden verschiedene Modalitäten im Sinne der Informationskodierung wie beispielsweise Fotos und Text verwendet, um Nachrichten effektiver zu vermitteln oder Aufmerksamkeit zu erregen. Kommunikations- und Sprachwissenschaftler erforschen das komplexe Zusammenspiel zwischen Modalitäten seit Jahrzehnten und haben unter Anderem untersucht, wie durch die Kombination der Modalitäten zusätzliche Informationen oder eine neue Bedeutungsebene entstehen können. Die Anzahl gemeinsamer Konzepte oder Entitäten (beispielsweise Personen, Orte und Ereignisse) zwischen Fotos und Text stellen einen wichtigen Aspekt für die Bewertung der Gesamtaussage und Bedeutung eines multimodalen Artikels dar. Automatisierte Ansätze zur Quantifizierung von Bild-Text-Beziehungen können für zahlreiche Anwendungen eingesetzt werden. Sie ermöglichen beispielsweise eine effiziente Exploration von Nachrichten, erleichtern die semantische Suche von Multimedia-Inhalten in (Web)-Archiven oder unterstützen menschliche Analysten bei der Evaluierung der Glaubwürdigkeit von Nachrichten. Allerdings gibt es bislang nur wenige Ansätze, die sich mit der Quantifizierung von Beziehungen zwischen Fotos und Text beschäftigen. Diese Ansätze berücksichtigen jedoch nicht explizit die intermodalen Beziehungen von Entitäten, welche eine wichtige Rolle in Nachrichten darstellen, oder basieren auf überwachten multimodalen Deep-Learning-Techniken. Diese überwachten Lernverfahren können ausschließlich die intermodalen Beziehungen von Entitäten detektieren, die in annotierten Trainingsdaten enthalten sind. Um diese Forschungslücke zu schließen, wird in dieser Arbeit ein unüberwachter Ansatz zur Quantifizierung der intermodalen Konsistenz von Entitäten zwischen Fotos und Text in realen multimodalen Nachrichtenartikeln vorgestellt. Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit werden neuartige Verfahren auf Basis von Deep Learning zur Extrahierung von Informationen aus Fotos vorgestellt, um Ereignisse (Events), Orte, Zeitangaben und Personen automatisch zu erkennen. Diese Verfahren bilden eine wichtige Voraussetzung, um die Beziehungen von Entitäten zwischen Bild und Text zu bewerten. Zunächst wird ein Ansatz zur Ereignisklassifizierung präsentiert, der neuartige Optimierungsfunktionen und Gewichtungsschemata nutzt um Ontologie-Informationen aus einer Wissensdatenbank in ein Deep-Learning-Verfahren zu integrieren. Das Training erfolgt anhand eines neu vorgestellten Datensatzes, der 570.540 Fotos und eine Ontologie mit 148 Ereignistypen enthält. Der Ansatz übertrifft die Ergebnisse von Referenzsystemen die keine strukturierten Ontologie-Informationen verwenden. Weiterhin wird ein DeepLearning-Ansatz zur Schätzung des Aufnahmeortes von Fotos vorgeschlagen, der Kontextinformationen über die Umgebung (Innen-, Stadt-, oder Naturaufnahme) und von Erdpartitionen unterschiedlicher Granularität verwendet. Die vorgeschlagene Lösung übertrifft die bisher besten Ergebnisse von aktuellen Forschungsarbeiten, obwohl diese deutlich mehr Fotos zum Training verwenden. Darüber hinaus stellen wir den ersten Datensatz zur Schätzung des Aufnahmejahres von Fotos vor, der mehr als eine Million Bilder aus den Jahren 1930 bis 1999 umfasst. Dieser Datensatz wird für das Training von zwei Deep-Learning-Ansätzen zur Schätzung des Aufnahmejahres verwendet, welche die Aufgabe als Klassifizierungs- und Regressionsproblem behandeln. Beide Ansätze erzielen sehr gute Ergebnisse und übertreffen Annotationen von menschlichen Probanden. Schließlich wird ein neuartiger Ansatz zur Identifizierung von Personen des öffentlichen Lebens und ihres gemeinsamen Auftretens in Nachrichtenfotos aus der digitalen Bibliothek Internet Archiv präsentiert. Der Ansatz ermöglicht es unstrukturierte Webdaten aus dem Internet Archiv mit Metadaten, beispielsweise zur semantischen Suche, zu erweitern. Experimentelle Ergebnisse haben die Effektivität des zugrundeliegenden Deep-Learning-Ansatzes zur Personenerkennung bestätigt. Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit wird ein unüberwachtes System zur Quantifizierung von BildText-Beziehungen in realen Nachrichten vorgestellt. Im Gegensatz zu bisherigen Verfahren liefert es automatisch neuartige Maße der intermodalen Konsistenz für verschiedene Entitätstypen (Personen, Orte und Ereignisse) sowie den Gesamtkontext. Das System ist nicht auf vordefinierte Datensätze angewiesen, und kann daher mit der Vielzahl und Diversität von Entitäten und Themen in Nachrichten umgehen. Zur Extrahierung von Entitäten aus dem Text werden geeignete Methoden der natürlichen Sprachverarbeitung eingesetzt. Examplarbilder für diese Entitäten werden automatisch aus dem Internet beschafft. Die vorgeschlagenen Methoden zur Informationsextraktion aus Fotos werden auf die Nachrichten- und heruntergeladenen Exemplarbilder angewendet, um die intermodale Konsistenz von Entitäten zu quantifizieren. Es werden zwei Aufgaben untersucht um die Qualität des vorgeschlagenen Ansatzes in realen Anwendungen zu bewerten. Experimentelle Ergebnisse für die Dokumentverifikation und die Beschaffung von Nachrichten mit geringer (potenzielle Fehlinformation) oder hoher multimodalen Konsistenz zeigen den Nutzen und das Potenzial des Ansatzes zur Unterstützung menschlicher Analysten bei der Untersuchung von Nachrichten.In today’s information age, the World Wide Web and social media are important sources for news and information. Different modalities (in the sense of information encoding) such as photos and text are typically used to communicate news more effectively or to attract attention. Communication scientists, linguists, and semioticians have studied the complex interplay between modalities for decades and investigated, e.g., how their combination can carry additional information or add a new level of meaning. The number of shared concepts or entities (e.g., persons, locations, and events) between photos and text is an important aspect to evaluate the overall message and meaning of an article. Computational models for the quantification of image-text relations can enable many applications. For example, they allow for more efficient exploration of news, facilitate semantic search and multimedia retrieval in large (web) archives, or assist human assessors in evaluating news for credibility. To date, only a few approaches have been suggested that quantify relations between photos and text. However, they either do not explicitly consider the cross-modal relations of entities – which are important in the news – or rely on supervised deep learning approaches that can only detect the cross-modal presence of entities covered in the labeled training data. To address this research gap, this thesis proposes an unsupervised approach that can quantify entity consistency between photos and text in multimodal real-world news articles. The first part of this thesis presents novel approaches based on deep learning for information extraction from photos to recognize events, locations, dates, and persons. These approaches are an important prerequisite to measure the cross-modal presence of entities in text and photos. First, an ontology-driven event classification approach that leverages new loss functions and weighting schemes is presented. It is trained on a novel dataset of 570,540 photos and an ontology with 148 event types. The proposed system outperforms approaches that do not use structured ontology information. Second, a novel deep learning approach for geolocation estimation is proposed that uses additional contextual information on the environmental setting (indoor, urban, natural) and from earth partitions of different granularity. The proposed solution outperforms state-of-the-art approaches, which are trained with significantly more photos. Third, we introduce the first large-scale dataset for date estimation with more than one million photos taken between 1930 and 1999, along with two deep learning approaches that treat date estimation as a classification and regression problem. Both approaches achieve very good results that are superior to human annotations. Finally, a novel approach is presented that identifies public persons and their co-occurrences in news photos extracted from the Internet Archive, which collects time-versioned snapshots of web pages that are rarely enriched with metadata relevant to multimedia retrieval. Experimental results confirm the effectiveness of the deep learning approach for person identification. The second part of this thesis introduces an unsupervised approach capable of quantifying image-text relations in real-world news. Unlike related work, the proposed solution automatically provides novel measures of cross-modal consistency for different entity types (persons, locations, and events) as well as the overall context. The approach does not rely on any predefined datasets to cope with the large amount and diversity of entities and topics covered in the news. State-of-the-art tools for natural language processing are applied to extract named entities from the text. Example photos for these entities are automatically crawled from the Web. The proposed methods for information extraction from photos are applied to both news images and example photos to quantify the cross-modal consistency of entities. Two tasks are introduced to assess the quality of the proposed approach in real-world applications. Experimental results for document verification and retrieval of news with either low (potential misinformation) or high cross-modal similarities demonstrate the feasibility of the approach and its potential to support human assessors to study news

Semantic multimedia modelling & interpretation for search & retrieval

With the axiomatic revolutionary in the multimedia equip devices, culminated in the proverbial proliferation of the image and video data. Owing to this omnipresence and progression, these data become the part of our daily life. This devastating data production rate accompanies with a predicament of surpassing our potentials for acquiring this data. Perhaps one of the utmost prevailing problems of this digital era is an information plethora. Until now, progressions in image and video retrieval research reached restrained success owed to its interpretation of an image and video in terms of primitive features. Humans generally access multimedia assets in terms of semantic concepts. The retrieval of digital images and videos is impeded by the semantic gap. The semantic gap is the discrepancy between a user’s high-level interpretation of an image and the information that can be extracted from an image’s physical properties. Content- based image and video retrieval systems are explicitly assailable to the semantic gap due to their dependence on low-level visual features for describing image and content. The semantic gap can be narrowed by including high-level features. High-level descriptions of images and videos are more proficient of apprehending the semantic meaning of image and video content. It is generally understood that the problem of image and video retrieval is still far from being solved. This thesis proposes an approach for intelligent multimedia semantic extraction for search and retrieval. This thesis intends to bridge the gap between the visual features and semantics. This thesis proposes a Semantic query Interpreter for the images and the videos. The proposed Semantic Query Interpreter will select the pertinent terms from the user query and analyse it lexically and semantically. The proposed SQI reduces the semantic as well as the vocabulary gap between the users and the machine. This thesis also explored a novel ranking strategy for image search and retrieval. SemRank is the novel system that will incorporate the Semantic Intensity (SI) in exploring the semantic relevancy between the user query and the available data. The novel Semantic Intensity captures the concept dominancy factor of an image. As we are aware of the fact that the image is the combination of various concepts and among the list of concepts some of them are more dominant then the other. The SemRank will rank the retrieved images on the basis of Semantic Intensity. The investigations are made on the LabelMe image and LabelMe video dataset. Experiments show that the proposed approach is successful in bridging the semantic gap. The experiments reveal that our proposed system outperforms the traditional image retrieval systems

Facial expression recognition in the wild : from individual to group

The progress in computing technology has increased the demand for smart systems capable of understanding human affect and emotional manifestations. One of the crucial factors in designing systems equipped with such intelligence is to have accurate automatic Facial Expression Recognition (FER) methods. In computer vision, automatic facial expression analysis is an active field of research for over two decades now. However, there are still a lot of questions unanswered. The research presented in this thesis attempts to address some of the key issues of FER in challenging conditions mentioned as follows: 1) creating a facial expressions database representing real-world conditions; 2) devising Head Pose Normalisation (HPN) methods which are independent of facial parts location; 3) creating automatic methods for the analysis of mood of group of people. The central hypothesis of the thesis is that extracting close to real-world data from movies and performing facial expression analysis on movies is a stepping stone in the direction of moving the analysis of faces towards real-world, unconstrained condition. A temporal facial expressions database, Acted Facial Expressions in the Wild (AFEW) is proposed. The database is constructed and labelled using a semi-automatic process based on closed caption subtitle based keyword search. Currently, AFEW is the largest facial expressions database representing challenging conditions available to the research community. For providing a common platform to researchers in order to evaluate and extend their state-of-the-art FER methods, the first Emotion Recognition in the Wild (EmotiW) challenge based on AFEW is proposed. An image-only based facial expressions database Static Facial Expressions In The Wild (SFEW) extracted from AFEW is proposed. Furthermore, the thesis focuses on HPN for real-world images. Earlier methods were based on fiducial points. However, as fiducial points detection is an open problem for real-world images, HPN can be error-prone. A HPN method based on response maps generated from part-detectors is proposed. The proposed shape-constrained method does not require fiducial points and head pose information, which makes it suitable for real-world images. Data from movies and the internet, representing real-world conditions poses another major challenge of the presence of multiple subjects to the research community. This defines another focus of this thesis where a novel approach for modeling the perception of mood of a group of people in an image is presented. A new database is constructed from Flickr based on keywords related to social events. Three models are proposed: averaging based Group Expression Model (GEM), Weighted Group Expression Model (GEM_w) and Augmented Group Expression Model (GEM_LDA). GEM_w is based on social contextual attributes, which are used as weights on each person's contribution towards the overall group's mood. Further, GEM_LDA is based on topic model and feature augmentation. The proposed framework is applied to applications of group candid shot selection and event summarisation. The application of Structural SIMilarity (SSIM) index metric is explored for finding similar facial expressions. The proposed framework is applied to the problem of creating image albums based on facial expressions, finding corresponding expressions for training facial performance transfer algorithms

Innovative local texture descriptors with application to eye detection

Local Binary Patterns (LBP), which is one of the well-known texture descriptors, has broad applications in pattern recognition and computer vision. The attractive properties of LBP are its tolerance to illumination variations and its computational simplicity. However, LBP only compares a pixel with those in its own neighborhood and encodes little information about the relationship of the local texture with the features. This dissertation introduces a new Feature Local Binary Patterns (FLBP) texture descriptor that can compare a pixel with those in its own neighborhood as well as in other neighborhoods and encodes the information of both local texture and features. The features encoded in FLBP are broadly defined, such as edges, Gabor wavelet features, and color features. Specifically, a binary image is first derived by extracting feature pixels from a given image, and then a distance vector field is obtained by computing the distance vector between each pixel and its nearest feature pixel defined in the binary image. Based on the distance vector field and the FLBP parameters, the FLBP representation of the given image is derived. The feasibility of the proposed FLBP is demonstrated on eye detection using the BioID and the FERET databases. Experimental results show that the FLBP method significantly improves upon the LBP method in terms of both the eye detection rate and the eye center localization accuracy. As LBP is sensitive to noise especially in near-uniform image regions, Local Ternary Patterns (LTP) was proposed to address this problem by extending LBP to three-valued codes. However, further research reveals that both LTP and LBP achieve similar results for face and facial expression recognition, while LTP has a higher computational cost than LBP. To improve upon LTP, this dissertation introduces another new local texture descriptor: Local Quaternary Patterns (LQP) and its extension, Feature Local Quaternary Patterns (FLQP). LQP encodes four relationships of local texture, and therefore, it includes more information of local texture than the LBP and the LTP. FLQP, which encodes both local and feature information, is expected to perform even better than LQP for texture description and pattern analysis. The LQP and FLQP are applied to eye detection on the BioID database. Experimental results show that both FLQP and LQP achieve better eye detection performance than FLTP, LTP, FLBP and LBP. The FLQP method achieves the highest eye detection rate

Recommendation Systems: An Insight Into Current Development and Future Research Challenges

Research on recommendation systems is swiftly producing an abundance of novel methods, constantly challenging the current state-of-the-art. Inspired by advancements in many related fields, like Natural Language Processing and Computer Vision, many hybrid approaches based on deep learning are being proposed, making solid improvements over traditional methods. On the downside, this flurry of research activity, often focused on improving over a small number of baselines, makes it hard to identify reference methods and standardized evaluation protocols. Furthermore, the traditional categorization of recommendation systems into content-based, collaborative filtering and hybrid systems lacks the informativeness it once had. With this work, we provide a gentle introduction to recommendation systems, describing the task they are designed to solve and the challenges faced in research. Building on previous work, an extension to the standard taxonomy is presented, to better reflect the latest research trends, including the diverse use of content and temporal information. To ease the approach toward the technical methodologies recently proposed in this field, we review several representative methods selected primarily from top conferences and systematically describe their goals and novelty. We formalize the main evaluation metrics adopted by researchers and identify the most commonly used benchmarks. Lastly, we discuss issues in current research practices by analyzing experimental results reported on three popular datasets