Multimedia Input Modes, the Modality Principle, and the Redundancy Principle for University ESL Students’ Learning

This study compared three multimedia input modes in the modality and redundancy principles (Mayer, 2009) in terms of university ESL (English as a Second Language) students’ learning and examined the applicability of the modality and redundancy principles for ESL students. Mayer’s modality and redundancy principles (2009) inform the design of effective multimedia lessons. However, the two principles originally stemmed from experimental studies examining students’ learning in their native language and did not include ESL students in the discussion. Based on the modality and redundancy principles, added on-screen text and graphics lead to an overload in learner’s visual channel, which undermines learning (Clark & Mayer, 2011). For ESL students’ multimedia learning, the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2009) suggests that on-screen text in the input modes of graphics + text and graphics + audio + text might overload the visual channel to impede learning. However, according to the cognitive load theory (Sweller, 2014), text might also reduce the processing demands for identifying and decoding auditory input to facilitate learning. Due to the limited number of empirical studies, it was inconclusive if verbatim text aids or hinders ESL students’ learning, and it was unclear if the modality and redundancy principles apply for ESL students. An initial Study addressed common validity issues, such as lack of control of instruments and materials, in related studies, and it quantitatively tested the applicability of the modality and redundancy principles for ESL students’ learning. Both knowledge retention and vocabulary test results indicated that input modes did not have an impact on ESL students’ learning, and consequently the modality and redundancy principles were insignificant. An additional study, Study 2, addressed the implementation issues and limitations of Study 1 to provide more rigorous findings. Based on the findings of both Study 1 and Study 2, the modality and redundancy principles did not apply for ESL students’ content knowledge and vocabulary learning when certain multimedia learning principles were followed. Both Study 1 and Study 2 extended Mayer’s modality and redundancy principles by examining their applications to ESL students, as well as provided empirical evidence for designing effective multimedia instruction for ESL students

고난이도 이러닝 콘텐츠에서 텍스트 또는 내레이션 제시 효과

학위논문 (석사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 사범대학 교육학과(교육공학전공), 2021. 2. 임철일.인터넷 및 통신 기술 (ICT)의 발달로 인해 교육의 추세와 방식이 수년에 걸쳐 변화해 왔다. 이러한 컴퓨터 기술, 인터넷 기술의 발전과 이를 사용할 수 있는 사람들의 수가 증가함에 따라 e- 러닝은 가장 인기있는 학습 매체 중 하나가 되었다. 전자 학습-교육 목적으로 휴대폰, 태블릿, 노트북 및 기타 기술 도구와 같은 다양한 유형의 ICT를 사용하는 것으로 생각할 수 있으며 여러 학습 기술과 전략을 통합한다. e- 러닝은 교육에서 학습 경험을 풍부하게 하므로 교육에 긍정적인 영향을 미칠 수 있는 잠재력이 있다. 이러닝은 정보 사회의 발전과 함께 성장하고 있으며 이러한 발전에 따라 이러닝 콘텐츠가 전달되는 방식도 변화하고 있다. 또한 콘텐츠가 멀티미디어로 제공되는 경우 사람들은 순차적 방식이 아닌 텍스트, 그래픽 또는 오디오를 동시에 제공함으로써 효과적인 학습 경험을 가능하게 하므로 학습에 더 많이 참여할 가능성이 높다. 멀티미디어는 교육 분야에서 고유 한 이점을 제공하지만 다른 학습 프로그램과 마찬가지로 멀티미디어 학습 설계는 효과를 위해 중요하다. 그렇기 때문에 멀티미디어 준비 원칙을 고려하는 것이 중요하다. 이러한 디자인 원칙 중 모달리티 원칙은 다른 멀티미디어 디자인 원칙보다 더 광범위하게 연구되었다. 모달리티 원칙은 그림과 구두 텍스트에서 학습하는 것이 그림과 화면 텍스트에서 학습하는 것보다 더 효과적임을 시사한다. 이 원칙의 경험적 지원이 높지만 그 효과는 특정 조건으로 제한된다. 그 중에서도 이 연구는 어려운 정보에 초점을 맞추었다. 즉, 학습자에서 정보가 복잡하다면 내레이션을 사용하는 것보다 화면 텍스트가 더 나은 선택이다는 제안을 고려하여 모달리티 원칙이 검증되지 않았던 상황인 한 멀티미디어 콘텐츠에서 화면상의 텍스트와 내레이션을 사용하는 효과를 검증하였다. 본 연구는 통제 및 실험 집단에서 파일럿 테스트, 사전 지식 설문지 및 회상 검사를 사용하였다. 60 명의 참가자는 사진들과 내레이션만 제시된 멀티메디아 콘텐츠를 학습할 집단(통제집단) 과 또는 내레이션과 화면텍스트 제시된 멀티메디아 콘텐츠를 학습할 집단(실험집단)에 무작위로 배정되었다. 실험집단은 사진들과 함께 내레이션을 봤으나 정보가 어려운 부분에서 사진들과 함께 내레이션 대신 화면 텍스트로 학습하였다. 멀티미디어 콘텐츠인 교육 영상을 본 후 회상검사를 실시했습니다. 데이터 수집 후 그룹의 평균 점수를 비교하기 위해 독립 샘플 t검증을 수행했습니다. 회상검사를 데이터 분석에 따르면, 통계 결과는 정보가 어려울 때 멀티미디어 자료에 내레이션 대신 화면 텍스트를 제공하는 것이 내레이션 만 제공하는 것보다 정보를 기억할 때에 더 효과적임을 보여주었다. 본 연구는 다음과 같은 점에서 의의가 있다. 첫째, 정보가 복잡 할 때 화면상 활용을 모색함으로써 본 연구는 멀티미디어 자료 설계에 대한 연구 기반의 성장에 기여한다. 이 연구에서 얻은 결과는 교육 설계자가 참고 자료로 사용할 수 있으며 긍정적인 학습 결과에 기여할 수 있기 때문이다. 둘째, 모달리티 원리의 다양한 상황을 검증할 필요가 있기 때문에 본 연구는 문헌에 기여한다. 마지막으로, 정보가 복잡 할 때 나레이션 대신 텍스트를 사용하는 것에 대한 조사가 많지 않기 때문에 동기, 학습 인식 등 학습 외에 다른 변수를 검증하는 측면에서 향후 연구의 기초 연구가 될 수 있기 때문에 현재 연구가 중요합니다.The trends and the ways of education have been changing over the years thanks to developments on the Internet and communication technology (ICT). These advancements in computer technology, Internet technology, and an increase in the number of people who can use them have made e-learning one of the most popular mediums of learning and it has been gaining popularity day-by-day. E-learning can be thought of as using different types of ICTs such as mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and other technological tools for educational purposes and it incorporates several learning technologies and strategies. E-learning enriches the learning experience in education, so it has the potential to affect education positively. E-learning is growing with the development of the information society and with these developments, the way how e-learning content is delivered has been changing too. Moreover, people are more likely to be engaged with learning if the content is presented as multimedia because it enables an effective learning experience by providing text, graphics, or audio simultaneously rather than in a sequential manner Multimedia offers unique advantages in the field of education however, as in any learning program, designing multimedia learning is important for effectiveness. That is why it is important to consider principles for preparing multimedia. Among those design principles, the modality principle has been more widely tested than any other principle of multimedia design. The modality principle suggests that learning from pictures and verbal text is more effective than learning from pictures and on-screen text. Although the modality principle has high empirical support, its effect is limited to certain conditions. Among those conditions, this research focused on difficult information. It was suggested that if the context of information is complicated for the learners then the printed text is a better option than using narration. Besides, among the circumstances that the modality principle has not been tested, it was suggested that there is a need to test the effect of using on-screen text and narration in one multimedia learning design. By taking these results into account, this study tested the use of printed-text and verbal text along with visuals when the content is difficult through conducting a recall test. This study used a pilot-test, prior knowledge questionnaire, and recall test on control and treatment groups. 60 participants were randomly assigned to either the narration-only group (NO) which is the control group or the narration-text group (NT) which is the treatment group. An instructional video was prepared for each treatment group. Participants in NO group received a self-paced, computer-based instructional video that includes narration only to explain the Artificial Intelligence and related concepts. The NT group received the same computer-based instructional video; however, the same explanation was presented as the narration. The narration part was removed, and the on-screen text was added when the incoming information is complicated. After they watched the instructional video, the recall test was conducted. After collecting data, independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the mean score of the groups. According to data analysis of recall test, the statistical results showed that providing on-screen text instead of narration in multimedia material when the information is difficult is more effective on recalling the information than providing the narration only. This study has significance due to the following reasons. Firstly, by exploring the use of on-screen when the information is convoluted, the present study contributes to the growing research base on the design of multimedia materials. The results obtained from this study can be used by instructional designers as a reference. and it can contribute to positive learning outcomes. Secondly, since there is a need for testing different circumstances of modality principle, this study makes contributions to literature. Finally, since there is no investigation about using text instead of narration when information is complicated, the present study is important because it can be a base study for future studies in terms of testing other variables besides learning such as motivation, learning perception, and, so on.I. INTRODUCTION 1 1. Background of the Study 1 1.1. Statement of the Problem 8 1.2. Needs of the Research 12 2. Research Questions 16 3. Definition of Terms 17 II. LITERATURE REVIEW 21 1. Theoretical Framework 21 1.1. Cognitive Load Theory 21 1.2. Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning 26 2. The Modality Principle 32 2.1. Evidence Studies for Modality Principle 33 III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 36 1. Overall Research Design 36 2. Materials and Instruments 38 2.1. Instructional Video 38 2.2. Instruments 43 2.2.1. Pilot Phase Process 44 2.2.2. Prior Knowledge Questionnaire 44 2.2.3. Recall Test 46 3. Participants 53 4. Data Analysis 54 4.1. Use of Prior Knowledge Questionnaire 57 4.2. Recall Test Analyses 58 IV. RESULTS 61 1. Prior Knowledge Questionnaire 61 2. Recall Test Analyses Results 61 3. Independent Samples T-test Results 63 4. Summary 64 V.DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION 67 1. Contributions of the Study 71 2. Implications of the Study 72 3. Limitations and Future Directions 74 4. Conclusions 76 REFERENCES 79 APPENDIX 99 국문초록 111Maste

The Effectiveness of Instructional Video in the Acquisition of Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor Skills in Practical Sports Therapy Rehabilitation.

The use of instructional multimedia, particularly video, within education is steadily increasing although the evidence-base regarding its usage typically only indicates that it is equivalent to or as effective as live demonstration or traditional teaching methods. The current study undertook a longitudinal quasi-experimental crossover study, over three consecutive academic years to evaluate the efficacy of instructional video to teach cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills to level 5 undergraduate sports therapy students. Through the use of a crossover design students undertook both the video and control conditions, they were assessed formatively on a weekly basis to provide a consistent measure of performance throughout the eighteen weeks of data collection within each year. The instructional videos used within the study were based upon (as far as possible) the multimedia principles proposed by Mayer to reduce extraneous cognitive load and maximise essential intrinsic and germane cognitive load. The results from the study were analysed with the use of effect size statistics and interpreted though the use of magnitude based inferences, an emerging alternative to the traditional use of null hypothesis testing. The findings of the study indicate that the use of the instructional videos was beneficial to the vast majority of the students, which builds upon the current evidence-base as it demonstrates that they can be used to enhance academic practice rather than be used as an equivalent resource

Eight guidelines for the design of instructional videos for software training

Purpose: Video has become a popular means for delivering "how to" information about a wide variety of software tasks. With video rapidly becoming a major instructional method, the question arises of their effectiveness for software training. This paper provides a set of eight guidelines for the construction of instructional videos for software training. Method: The guidelines present a concise view on how to design an instructional video for software training. They are based on a considerable body of research on how people process visual and verbal information and how to support these processes. Each guideline is described, illustrated, and supported with research findings from various disciplines. Results: The guidelines were tested in three consecutive empirical studies. In these studies a set of instructional videos for Word's formatting options were designed. The effects of the video instructions were compared with a paper tutorial (Van der Meij & Van der Meij, in preparation). We found that the video instructions yielded more favorable appraisals for motivation, higher skills proficiency immediately after training, and better skills retention after a one-week delay. Conclusions: The guidelines offer patterns that could further advance the theory and practice of the design of instructional videos for software training. A limitation of the study is that we concentrated on instructional video that serve a tutorial function. For video that function as a reference guide not all the guidelines are equally important, and also some new guidelines may be called for

Interactive Videos As A Vocabulary Pre-Teaching Tool In Middle School Science

The purpose of this study was to compare the effectiveness of interactive video instruction to teacher-led direct instruction for pre-teaching science vocabulary to newcomer middle school ELs. The second phase of the experiment utilized interactive videos to pre-teach science vocabulary in a flipped learning environment. This study was influenced by vocabulary experts Beck, McKeown, and Kucan, as well as R. E. Mayer, multimedia learning expert. Data collection included pre-tests and post-tests of expressive and receptive vocabulary knowledge, as well as a student survey to determine ease of use, students’ perceived learning and satisfaction with the type of instruction. Results from the study showed that expressive vocabulary gains outpaced receptive vocabulary gains and that strong first language skills were more closely linked to vocabulary gains than strong second language skills. From the study, it may be concluded that interactive videos are not as effective as teacher-led vocabulary pre-teaching and that interactive videos used for flipped learning are equally as effective as interactive videos used within regular classroom instruction

The Separate and Collective Effects of Personalization, Personification, and Gender on Learning with Multimedia Chemistry Instructional Materials

Chemistry is a difficult subject to learn and teach for students in general. Additionally, female students are under-represented in chemistry and the physical sciences. Within chemistry, atomic and electronic structure is a key concept and several recommendations in the literature describe how this topic can be taught better. These recommendations can be employed in multimedia instructional materials designed following principles understood through the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. Additionally, these materials can expand the known use of principles like personalization (addressing the learner as you ) and test prospective design principles like personification (referring to abstract objects like atoms as she or he ). The purpose of this study was to use the recommendations on teaching atomic and electronic structure along with known multimedia design principles to create multimedia chemistry learning materials that can be used to test the use of personalization and personification both separately and together. The study also investigated how learning with these materials might be different for male and female students. A sample of 329 students from private northern California high schools were given an atomic structure pre-test, watched a multimedia chemistry instructional video, and took a post-test on atomic structure. Students were randomly assigned to watch one of six versions of the instructional video. Students in the six groups were compared using ANOVA procedures and no significant differences were found. Males were compared to females for the six different treatment conditions and the most significant difference was for the treatment that combined personalization (you) and female personification (she), with a medium effect size (Cohen\u27s d=0.65). Males and females were then compared separately across the six groups using ANOVA procedures and t-tests. A significant difference was found for female students using the treatment that combined personalization (you) and female personification (she) compared to the group with no personalization or personification, with a medium-large effect size (Cohen\u27s d=0.75). Further research is needed to eliminate possible confounding and other factors, but the study results indicate that personalization and personification likely have positive effects on learning, especially for female students

The Effect of More and Less Relevant Details and Teacher Voice on Student Retention and Problem-Solving Transfer in Teacher-Created Multimedia

Many teachers create multimedia resources for their students, but most are uncertain as to what factors to consider regarding the design of multimedia instructional materials. Prior research identified instructional design principles for multimedia including the coherence principle and voice principle. The purpose of this study was to test the coherence principle in a realistic setting using a heterogeneous group of ninth grade students in a humanities course to determine the effect of seductive details on retention and problem-solving transfer. To extend understanding of the voice principle, this study examined the effect of the teacher’s voice on student learning as measured by retention and problem-solving transfer. Additionally, the study explored the relationship between prior knowledge, retention, and problem-solving transfer. Accordingly, the study, a 2 x 2 factorial design used a convenience sample of 134 ninth grade students enrolled in a Christian Sexuality course in an urban, co-ed high school in the San Francisco Bay Area. Students were randomly assigned to one of four groups for the four multimedia packages delivered over a month: No Seductive Details/Teacher Voice, No Seductive Details/Different Teacher Voice, Seductive Details/ Teacher Voice, or Seductive Details/ Different Teacher Voice. Students completed a prior knowledge inventory first and a retention inventory and problem-solving transfer inventory after each multimedia package. Eight two-way ANOVAs were conducted to determine differences in performance between the groups. One statistically significant main effect for the seductive details condition, F(1, 121) = 4.32, p \u3c .05 , d = 0.36 , was observed for problem-solving transfer in Video 1. In contrast to prior research conducted in laboratory settings, there was no seductive details effect observed. No statistically significant differences for voice were observed, but the descriptive statistics revealed a trend of improving scores for both retention and transfer for different teacher voice suggesting that social agency theory does not explain previous voice principle research. Prior knowledge was positively associated with transfer for teacher’s voice and with retention with different teacher’s voice

Teaching Complex Content in Healthcare: A Comparison of the Effect of Three Types of Multimedia Pretraining on Schematic Knowledge and Near Transfer

Challenged to teach complex content to students, university educators in healthcare disciplines face a practical need for effective pedagogical approaches. The preponderance of multimedia and digital resources in and beyond college classrooms suggests that solutions to teaching complex content should leverage educational technology and multimedia resources. The multimedia principle of pretraining is one effective way to augment complex content learning. The pretraining principle specifies that learning is more effective when the names and characteristics of main terms and concepts are introduced before more nuanced and complex content is presented. The purpose of this study was to investigate three approaches to pretraining—traditional pretraining, pretraining with a static concept map, and pretraining with an animated concept map—to examine the effect that the method of pretraining had on schematic knowledge and near transfer achievement. Pretraining has been found especially effective with learners who have low prior knowledge, with difficult and conceptual content, and with fast-paced instruction. The study also explored whether student perceptions about the usefulness of concept maps as a learning resource was reflected in achievement. Using a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design, 145 occupational therapy students were assigned to one of the three treatment conditions. Following a pretest to obtain a baseline of prior knowledge, the 12-minute pretraining treatment on the topic of sensory integration theory was administered via a video module, and then participants were exposed to a 60-minute multimedia lecture. An immediate posttest was completed, followed two weeks later by a delayed posttest. A questionnaire to measure participant perceptions about concept maps was also administered at the posttest. Data analysis was completed using repeated measures ANOVA to examine gain scores from pretest to posttest to delayed posttest. On the measures of schematic knowledge and near transfer, the static concept map group demonstrated statistically significant gains and stronger scores than the other two groups. The findings suggest that the most effective of these three strategies for learning complex content is pretraining with a static concept map. Traditional pretraining is another viable option but pretraining with an animated concept map is not an efficient approach

Video outperforms illustrated text : Do old explanations for the modality effect apply in a learner-paced fifth-grade classroom context?

The modality effect occurs when people learn better from a combination of pictures and narration than from a combination of pictures and written text. Despite the strong empirical results in earlier studies, the modality effect has been less prominent in later studies of children in learner-paced settings. However, the generalizability of these results in practice may be limited because the studies included notable differences compared to a classroom context. The present study examined the modality effect in a learner-paced classroom context. In a within-subjects experiment, fifth graders learned from illustrated texts and videos and completed pre-, post-, and delayed tests on two science topics. The video group outperformed the illustrated text group in retention, delayed retention, cognitive load, and efficiency measures but there were no statistical differences in transfer. In both learning conditions, the cognitive load was moderate and did not correlate with any learning outcomes. The results suggest that while the modality effect can occur in a learner-paced classroom context, it may not be based on the avoidance of cognitive overload. Alternative explanations concerning the differences in settings and materials between classroom contexts and modality effect research are discussed.publishedVersionPeer reviewe

The synthesis of a unified pedagogy for the design and evaluation of e-learning software for high-school computing

In recent decades, several countries have applied a resurgent focus to high-school computer science in the hope that it will provide the foundations for strong and innovative national IT sectors. The UK is one example undertaking this transition, and experiencing the associated challenges placed on the teaching community. In parallel, recent years have seen a trend towards enriching education with digital resources, specifically e-learning software. This study offers a practical contribution to the computer science teaching community by supporting the provision of e-learning software, and hence the increased use of e-learning in high-school teaching. However, it recognises that there remains a concern over the inconsistent pedagogical quality of many e-learning implementations. To safeguard the pedagogical quality of e-learning software, this study offers a research contribution by defining: (1) a comprehensive set of pedagogical heuristics to inform the design of e-learning software; (2) an associated e-learning evaluation protocol to guide the evaluation and selection of e-learning software for use in schools; and in doing so, (3) contributes to the under-researched area of high- school computing pedagogy. The proposed pedagogy synthesises a vast body of knowledge on learning theories into a comprehensive, yet accessible, set of heuristics. These heuristics supplement existing literature by focusing more tightly and in depth on pedagogy, rather than usability. The pedagogy synthesises the following learning theories: constructivism, social constructivism, connectivism, and cognitive load, and additionally gives pedagogical focus to VARK learning styles, ARCS motivational design, collaborative learning, gamification, and computational thinking. The e-learning evaluation protocol builds upon existing best practice in evaluation procedures but is unique in its characteristics and focus. The study follows a rigorous three phase mixed methods exploratory design in which the e-learning pedagogy and evaluation protocol were explored and iteratively developed in concert with input and evaluation from education experts and teachers. In parallel, practice-based input was secured via student usage of prototype e-learning software designed in adherence to the pedagogy. The findings of this research offer preliminary validation of the appropriateness and comprehensiveness of the e- learning pedagogy, and the final phase demonstrates statistically significant learning increases based on student usage of the e-learning software prototype. Additionally, this research offers preliminary validation of the reliability and validity of the evaluation protocol. Building on the findings of this research, several possibilities are outlined to further empirically establish this research, or develop it further into new avenues