The Economics of Fairness, Reciprocity and Altruism – Experimental Evidence and New Theories

This paper surveys recent experimental and field evidence on the impact of concerns for fairness, reciprocity and altruism on economic decision making. It also reviews some new theoretical attempts to model the observed behavior.Behavioural Economics; Other-regarding Preferences; Fairness; Reciprocity; Altruism; Experiments; Incentives; Contracts; Competition

The Economics of Fairness, Reciprocity and Altruism – Experimental Evidence and New Theories

Chapter written for the Handbook of Reciprocity, Gift-Giving and AltruismBehavioural Economics; Other-regarding Preferences; Fairness; Reciprocity; Altruism; Experiments; Incentives; Contracts; Competition

The Effects of Facial Expression on Out-Group Discrimination

The current paper sought to test the hypothesis that the facial expression of smiling would mitigate the effects of out-group discrimination. Study 1 examined the influence of facial expression (smiling or frowning), gender (man or woman), and race (Black or White) on resource allocation decisions. Participants were shown arrays of facial photographs. The arrays all contained eight photographs and were counterbalanced to contain all combinations of the variables of interest (i.e., each group had a smiling man of each race, a smiling woman of each race, a frowning man of each race, and a frowning woman of each race). The participants were asked to imagine that the photographs were taken of other college students. They were then asked to allocate hypothetical extra credit points among the photographs. The Black participants tended to show out-group discrimination regardless of the facial expression of the photographs. The White participants demonstrated no form of discrimination when the targets were smiling, but actually favored the frowning Black targets over the frowning White targets. In Study 2, a second group of participants rated the photographs used in Study 1 across 15 different attributes. The number of points allocated to each photograph in Study 1 and the ratings from Study 2 were then explored though bivariate correlations. All of the attributes with the exception of Dominance were highly correlated with the number of points the photographs received in Study 1. The results are discussed in terms of halo effects and cultural display rules for emotions

The role of need for cognitive closure and emotions in shaping the human social interactions and driving the intergroup decision behaviour

In this thesis author investigates the role of need for closure (NCC) and emotions in shaping intergroup relations. The thesis consists of two separate parts that correspond with three studies. In the first part (Study1c with preliminary Studies 1 a and b) author assumes that level of NCC is associated with the acceptance or rejection of the offers from outgroup proposers who differ in perceived similarity to the ingroup. Specifically, the author expects that high NCC individuals will more frequently reject offers from the outgroups than low NCC individuals, and it will be especially true for dissimilar and Disgust/Anger/Fear-eliciting outgroups. The results confirmed hypotheses. In the second part (Study 2) author tests the role of NCC in bargaining behaviour in the ingroup-outgroup context using fMRI method expecting different neural activation among high and low NCC individuals while playing in Ultimatum Game. The author found cerebellar activation in conflicting situations (i.e., offer 4:6 by Outgroup proposers; offer 1:9 by Ingroup proposers, and offer 4:6 by Ingroup proposers) among high NCC (vs. low NCC) individuals. In part three (Study 3) author tests a group-effect on emotional contagion, hypothesized that being emotionally contaminated by a facial expression could interfere with a mere cognitive task in terms of accuracy and Reaction Times (RTs). The results didn’t confirm it

Social cognitive consequences of differences in the emotional grounding of concepts: the role of embodiment

American Psychological Association (PsycINFO Classification Categories and Codes): 2300 Human Experimental Psychology; 2340 Cognitive Processes; 2560 Psychophysiology; 2720 Linguistics & Language & Speech; 3000 Social PsychologyThe present work examines the affective grounding of first-native (L1) and secondlearned (L2) languages, and how they differently impact intra-individual, inter-individual and intergroup processes. In the first chapter we framed our work in the Socially Situated Cognition approach, and proposed the application of its assumptions to linguistic communication. In the second chapter we reviewed literature showing the differences in processing L1-L2, and concluded that these languages are not likely to be grounded in the same way. In the first empirical chapter we examined this assumption in two affective priming experiments. Congruency effects were observed only in L1 for prime/target word pairs, and in L1-L2 for pairs of word/photos (facial expressions). These results suggest different groundings of L1-L2, and that the presence of facial expressions, that facilitate affective simulation processes, may overrule L2 constraints. The second set of three experiments revealed that L2 induces social distance and a more abstract type of processing. Moreover, the social distance induced by L2 was mediated by a more abstract construal-level that is consistent with the disembodied nature of L2. The last set of two experiments indicates that the evaluation of sentences with affective content, presented in L1-L2, depends on their valence and on the group membership of the described targets. Affective simulation (measured with EMG) was more intense in L1, and for the in-group, and differences in simulation of in-group/out-group sentences were enhanced in L2. The last chapter presents a summary of the main findings, their contributions and limitations, and suggests future research directions.O presente trabalho examina a ancoragem afectiva da língua-nativa (L1) e da segunda-língua (L2), e como estas influenciam de forma diferente processos intraindividuais, inter-individuais e intergrupais. No primeiro capítulo enquadramos o trabalho na abordagem da Cognição Social Situada propondo a aplicação das suas premissas à comunicação linguística. No segundo capítulo revemos estudos que mostram diferenças no processamento de L1-L2 concluíndo que, provavelmente, estas línguas não são corporalizadas da mesma maneira. No primeiro capítulo empírico examinamos esta premissa em dois experimentos de primação afectiva. Observámos efeitos de congruência apenas em L1 para pares de palavras primo-alvo, e em L1-L2 para pares de palavras/fotos (expressões faciais). Estes resultados sugerem diferenças na ancoragem afectiva de L1-L2 e que a presença de expressões faciais, facilitadoras de processos de simulação afectiva, anula os constrangimentos impostos por L2. O segundo conjunto de três experimentos revelou que L2 induz distância social e um processamento mais abstracto. Para além disso, a distância social induzida por L2 foi mediada por um construal-level mais abstracto, o que é consistente com a natureza descorporalizada de L2. No último conjunto de dois experimentos observou-se que a avaliação de frases de conteúdo afectivo, apresentadas em L1-L2, depende da sua valência e da pertença grupal dos alvos descritos. A simulação afectiva (medida com EMG) foi mais intensa em L1, e para o in-group, e as diferenças na simulação de frases do in-group/outgroup foram realçadas em L2. O último capítulo apresenta os resultados principais, seus contributos e limitações, e sugestões para investigação futura

Essays on the Impacts of Environment on Uncertainty Attitudes and Consumption Choices

This thesis comprises three essays on the impact of the environment (i.e. objects or conditions which surround people) on uncertainty attitudes. The first chapter reports an online experiment by mimicking screen colours frequently used in asset trading software platforms and evaluates the impact of the graphical interface on decisions in risk and uncertainty. The findings in this chapter provide empirical evidence that people’s judgment in uncertainty depends on factors well beyond the traditional formulation of uncertainty through a set of state-contingent payoffs, and that the impact of these factors demonstrates disassociation between decisions in risk and in ambiguity. The next essay shows that people’s attitudes are sensitive to the inflow of information within their nation (environment). The announcement (a hike of interest rates) although positive and well anticipated, resulted in different reactions to the news. The media coverage prior to and after a monetary policy announcement creates different informed environment which affect people’s aversion to ambiguity and risk. The effect is detectable by controlling for individuals’ exposure to monetary policy news, and by disentangling precise news (after the announcement) and imprecise information (media discussions on change in monetary policy). These effects on individuals’ attitudes are driven by the channels for receiving economic information. The third chapter explores the expectation effects further by investigating the relationship between people’s uncertainty attitudes and their allocation of marginal income to consumption. This essay shows that people increase their marginal allocation to expenses when the associated risk and ambiguity aversion is high. The main results show that the ambiguity aversion explains the increased marginal allocation to household and discretionary expenses and contradicts other theories

The Effects of Auditory and Olfactory Cues on Visual Attention Toward Food Images Under Acute Stress

Psychological stress has been shown to increase preference for high calorie foods containing high levels of sugar and fat. Since excessive intake of high calorie foods may increase potential risk of obesity and other relevant health issues, relieving psychological stress may help in maintaining a balanced diet and good health status. Although a variety of strategies for relieving psychological stress has been suggested, little attention has been paid to regarding whether such strategies can result in balanced diets. Since music therapy and aromatherapy have proven popular approaches to relieving psychological stress, this thesis aimed at determining whether listening to music (Chapter 3) or smelling pleasant odors (Chapter 4) might decrease acute psychological stress, thereby decreasing visual attention toward and desire to consume high calorie foods. In Study 1, participants, after taking an intellectual quotient (IQ) test (acute stressor), were exposed to five minutes of one of three auditory conditions: (1) no music, (2) a classical musical piece (Air on the G string), and (3) a self-selected musical piece. Participants experiencing the no-music condition were given a break from music listening. Both positive and negative emotions were measured at three stages: before the IQ test (Pre-Stress), immediately after the IQ test (Post-Stress), and following the treatment (music or break) (Treatment). Using an eye tracker at both the Pre-Stress and the Treatment stages, participants’ visual attention toward high-calorie food images was measured, along with their desire toward eating high calorie foods shown in the images. The results showed that, under all three auditory conditions, while negative emotions were significantly increased at the Post-Stress stage, they were significantly decreased with no difference found between the Pre-Stress and Treatment stages. The three auditory conditions exhibited no significant differences with respect to visual attention toward high-calorie food images in terms of entry time, fixation count, and fixation time. However, as participants more intensively felt negative emotions, especially “distressed” and “nervous”, they looked at the high-calorie food images more quickly. In Study 2, participant positive and negative emotions, visual attention to high-calorie food images, and liking and desire to eat directed toward the high-calorie food images were measured before and after the IQ test under one of the three olfactory conditions: (1) no scent, (2) lavender scent, and (3) menthol scent. Negative emotions increased after the IQ test under all three olfactory conditions. With respect to visual attention, participants under the lavender scent condition looked at the high-calorie food images longer than those under the no-scent condition. In addition, as participants more intensively felt a “distressed” negative emotion, they looked at the high-calorie food images more quickly. Participants in the lavender scent condition exhibited less desire to eat the high calorie foods shown in the images than those in the no-scent or menthol-scent conditions. In conclusion, smelling a pleasant scent, especially lavender, can relieve psychological stress-induced visual attention toward high-calorie food images. While listening to musical pieces produced no significant differences with respect to reducing the stress-induced visual attention toward high-calorie food images from just taking a break without listening to music, further study should be conducted to determine how to optimize effective music treatment for stress reduction. The findings of this thesis provide better understanding of how to use either scent or music to maximize relief of psychological stress-related visual attention to high calorie foods

Examination preparation or effective teaching: Conflicting priorities in the implementation of a pedagogic innovation

Communicative and task-based teaching hold central places in contemporary language pedagogy, yet their feasibility as pedagogic innovations in Chinese contexts remains open to question. Examinations are generally perceived as a particular factor militating against the implementation of communicative approaches. This study uses four case studies of teachers in two primary schools in China to provide in-depth empirical data, drawn from 55 lesson observations and a series of related interviews, focusing on the impact of examinations on classroom pedagogy. The analysis suggests that the influence of examinations differs from individual to individual, depending on various contextual and participant factors including teachers' beliefs about pedagogy. Implications for the relationship between pedagogic innovations and examination preparation are discussed. Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.postprin

Multilingualism

This book promotes understanding of multilingualism based on the research efforts at the frontiers with state-of-the-art approaches or novel interdisciplinary perspectives. It addresses issues of the impact of multilingualism on cultural awareness and national identity, gives an overview on how multilingual speakers benefit themselves in learning and communicative competence, and describes the association between multilingualism and media, health, and society