The application of spaceborne GPS to atmospheric limb sounding and global change monitoring

This monograph is intended for readers with minimal background in radio science who seek a relatively comprehensive treatment of the mission and technical aspects of an Earth-orbiting radio occultation satellite. Part 1 (chapters 1-6) describes mission concepts and programmatic information; Part 2 (chapters 7-12) deals with the theoretical aspects of analyzing and interpreting radio occultation measurements. In this mission concept the navigation signals from a Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite that is being occulted by the Earth's limb are observed by a GPS flight receiver on board a low Earth orbiter (LEO) satellite. This technique can be used to recover profiles of the Earth's atmospheric refractivity, pressure, and temperature using small, dedicated, and relatively low-cost space systems. Chapter 2 summarizes the basic space system concepts of the limb-sounding technique and describes a low-cost strawman demonstration mission. Chapter 3 discusses some of the scientific benefits of using radio occultation on a suite of small satellites. Chapter 4 provides a more detailed discussion of several system elements in a radio occultation mission, including the launch system for small payloads, the LEO microsat, the GPS constellation, the GPS flight receiver payload, the mission operations ground control and data receiving system, the ground-based GPS global tracking network for precision orbit determination, and the central data processing and archive system. Chapter 5 addresses the various technology readiness questions that invariably arise. Chapter 6 discusses the overall costs of a demonstration mission such as GPS/MET (meteorological) proposed by the University Navstar Consortium (UNAVCO). Chapter 7 describes a geometrical optics approach to coplanar atmospheric occultation. Chapter 8 addresses major questions regarding accuracy of the occultation techniques. Chapter 9 describes some simulations that have been performed to evaluate the sensitivity of the recovered profiles of atmospheric parameters to different error sources, such as departure from spherical symmetry, water vapor, etc. Chapter 10 discusses horizontal and vertical resolution associated with limb sounders in general. Chapter 11 treats selected Fresnel diffraction techniques that can be used in radio occultation measurements to sharpen resolution. Chapter 12 provides brief discussions on selected special topics, such as strategies for handling interference and multipath processes that may arise for rays traveling in the lower troposphere

A new dynamic approach for statistical optimisation of GNSS radio occultation bending angles

Climate change has become a serious issue for our society. It is of great importance to accurately monitor climate change and provide reliable information to the society so that proper actions can be taken to alleviate the significant change of climate. Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) based radio occultation (RO) is a new satellite remote sensing technique that can provide high vertical resolution, long-term stable and global coverage atmospheric profiles of the Earth’s atmosphere. However, the quality of the retrieved atmospheric profiles decreases above about 30 km due to a low signal-to-noise ratio of GNSS signals at these high altitudes, since errors in bending angle profiles are propagated to refractivity profiles through an Abel integral and subsequently propagated to other atmospheric profiles through the hydrostatic integral. It is therefore important to carefully initialise the bending angles at high altitudes to minimise these error propagation effects and thereby optimise the climate monitoring utility of the retrieved profiles. Statistical optimisation is a commonly used method for this purpose. This method combines the observed bending angle profile and background bending angle profile based on their error covariance matrices to determine “optimised” bending angle profile. The focus of this thesis is to investigate an advanced statistical optimisation algorithm, which dynamically estimates both background and observation error covariance matrices, for the best determination of RO optimised bending angle profile. In this new algorithm, background bending angle profiles and their associated error covariance matrices are estimated using bending angles from multiple days of the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) short-term (24h) forecast and analysis fields as well as the averaged observed bending angle. The background error matrices are constructed with geographically varying background error estimates on a daily-updated basis. The observation error covariance matrices are estimated using multiple days of RO data with geographically varying observation errors for an occultation event. The most distinctive advantage of the new algorithm is that both background and observation error covariance matrices are realistically estimated using large ensemble of climatological and observed data, while existing algorithms use crude formulations to estimate both error matrices. The new algorithm developed is evaluated against the algorithm used by the Wegener Center Occultation Processing System version 5.4 (OPSv5.4) by calculating statistical errors of retrieved atmospheric profiles relative to their reference profiles. Since the background errors at different heights are highly correlated and their covariance matrix is critical for the resulting optimised bending angles, the dynamically estimated background error covariance matrix is first used in statistical optimisation to retrieve atmospheric profiles from simulated MetOp as well as observed CHAMP and COSMIC RO events on single days. The dynamically estimated observation error covariance matrix is then used in the statistical optimisation together with the estimated background error covariance matrix to retrieve atmospheric profiles using the same test data. It can be concluded from the evaluation that if the estimated background error covariance matrix is solely used for the statistical optimisation, it can significantly reduce random errors and generate less or similar residual systematic errors (biases) in the optimised bending angles. The subsequent refractivity profiles and atmospheric (dry temperature) profiles retrieved are benefitted from the improved error characteristics of bending angles. If both observation and background error covariance matrices estimated from the new approach are used, the standard deviations of the optimised bending angles are only further reduced for simulated MetOp data, while for the observed CHAMP and COSMIC data, large random errors of bending angles are found at higher altitudes (e.g. > 50 km). This is likely to be that the observation errors are underestimated at high altitudes, where bending angles are largely affected by ionospheric effects and observation errors, and more weights are given to the noisy observed bending angles in the estimation of the optimised bending angles. Errors in CHAMP and COSMIC observed bending angles are further transferred downwards to their subsequently retrieved refractivity and dry temperature profiles, the quality of which is also degraded. The effects of the estimated background and observation error correlations on the atmospheric retrievals are investigated using simulated MetOp data. It is found that these realistically estimated correlations alone can reduce the random errors of the optimised bending angles significantly and improve the quality of the subsequent refractivities and temperatures. The performance of the new approach that uses only the new background matrix in the statistical optimisation on monthly occultation data is evaluated. The results show that the monthly errors are similar to those from single days, but in a smoother manner

Study of Unmanned Systems to Evaluate the Martian Environment. Volume II - Experiments

Unmanned space mission to determine Martian environmental factors influencing design of systems for manned space mission to Mars - mission experiment requirement