Battery Second Use: A Framework for Evaluating the Combination of Two Value Chains

A Battery Second Use (B2U) strategy is the design and development of a battery system with the intention of having it serve two purposes: (1) the initial use in the vehicle and (2) another mobile or stationary application. An optimal battery second use strategy requires the design and use of the battery to maximize the value of the system over its entire extended life cycle. Within this thesis a framework is developed which allows the evaluation of tradeoffs along the operational second use value chain

Techno-economic feasibility of retired electric-vehicle batteries repurpose/reuse in second-life applications: A systematic review

In line with the global target in decarbonising the transportation sector and the noticeable increase of new electric vehicles (EV) owners, concerns are raised regarding the expected quantity of Retired EV Batteries (REVB) exposed to the environment when they reach 70–80% of their original capacity. However, there is significant potential for REVB, after deinstallation, to deliver energy for alternative applications such as storing surplus. This systematic review evaluates state-of-art modelling/experimental studies focused on repurposing REVB in second-life applications. Technical and economic viability of REVB repurposing has been confirmed to solve the unreliability of cleaner energy technologies and mitigate the high investment of new storage systems. 40% of included studies considered hybrid systems with PV being a dominant technology where REVB was evaluated to be small-scaled and large storage systems. Additionally, successful attempts were conducted to evaluate REVB performance in providing grid services. It has however, been discovered intensive grid services applications like frequency regulation, was technically challenging due to demanding working requirements. Reviewed studies considered different prices for REVB due to lack of market regulation on REVB resale; similarly, technical parameters, including initial State of Health (SoH) and State of Charge (SoC) constraints were inconsistent due to lack of standardisation

End-of-Life management of wind turbines, PV modules and Lithium-Ion batteries: Current practices and closing the circular economy gap

Renewable energy generation and increased electrification are pivotal to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating climate change. Consequently, global deployment of wind turbines, PV modules and electric vehicles has soared, and the trend is expected to continue. These technologies have only recently started reaching the end of their design lives, and rapid escalation of end-of-life (EoL) waste volumes are projected. This study responds to the imminent waste issue by researching current EoL management practices, initiatives and regulations of these three technologies in Canada and globally. Through extensive literature review and communications with select experts in the EoL field, it also seeks to identify factors that impede current EoL management efforts to close the circular economy gap and those that can support the overall sustainability of deploying these technologies. The EoL management of these technologies is in the early stages and many innovative initiatives are being explored and developed. There are currently few proven business cases, and barriers to the EoL strategies’ profitability and effectiveness include insufficient waste feedstock, inadequate collection infrastructure and second-life markets, and uncertainty about the assets’ remaining useful life. Designing for circularity, collaboration between supply chain stakeholders, circular business models and technology-specific regulations that incorporate extended producer responsibility, second-life targets and circular solutions can help progress the technologies toward improved sustainability. The research found that EoL management is a complex but necessary undertaking that needs to consider multiple, often conflicting factors. Additionally, the technologies and their EoL management practices are dynamic and fast-changing. Hence this study's findings are best viewed as compelling evidence of the increasing need for robust EoL management and a demonstration of potential solutions rather than absolute conclusions

Environmental and economic assessments of electric vehicle battery end-of-life business models

Paper I is excluded from the dissertation until it is published.The number of electric vehicles is rapidly and continuously increasing due to the transport sector’s electrification to reduce emissions such as greenhouse gases. Each electric vehicle is powered by a battery that can contain remaining capacity after first use and several potentially valuable materials. The demand for energy storage systems accelerates the need for these batteries. Considering the upcoming volumes of used electric vehicle batteries, a circular economy for batteries is crucial to enhance environmental and economic sustainability. Circular economy business models aim to strategically reduce the use of resources by closing, narrowing, and slowing material loops, enabling economically and environmentally sustainable business. However, the potential environmental benefits of such circular economy efforts are not explicit. The aim of this work is to provide recommendations for global economic and environmental sustainability of used electric vehicles batteries by considering a circular economy. This objective requires an interdisciplinary approach, building on existing research fields and methods within business and engineering sciences. This interdisciplinary approach prevents problem shifting between environmental and economic sustainability performance of the circular business models identified and assessed. In order to address the main thesis aim, four research questions were developed, and four corresponding publications were produced as a result. Paper I explores market opportunities and limitations for used electric vehicle batteries in Norway, a country with a high market share of electric cars in new car sales. The work qualitatively models the used electric vehicle batteries business ecosystem based on interviews with the industrial ecosystem actors. The globally relevant findings from paper I identify realistic end-of-life alternatives for paper II. Paper II identifies and discusses the globally recommended circular business model to enhance a circular economy for batteries from electric vehicles. The Delphi panel viii method enables a battery expert panel to elaborate on a suitable circular business model for the upcoming volumes of used electric vehicle batteries. Paper III assesses the identified circular business model from paper II to discuss how such a business model can be economically viable and realistic. The techno-economic assessment considers multiple scenarios to detect economic factors for circular business model success. Paper IV assesses the identified circular business models from paper II to discuss how such a business model can benefit the climate and natural environment. Life cycle assessment methodology can calculate the environmental impacts of decisions between business models. Life cycle assessment can detect problems shifting between ecological impact categories, such as greenhouse gas emissions and contamination of the natural environment. The research reveals that repurposing electric vehicle batteries in appropriate second-life applications can reduce their environmental impact and extend their useful lifespan. Eventually, the materials must be recycled to the extent possible. This circular business model’s key environmental benefit is the potential reduction in the demand for new batteries, which could help displace primary production and avoid emissions and other environmental impacts from these industrial processes. However, there is a risk this circular business model may be economically unviable. Several factors must be considered and combined to improve profitability and realistic commercial operations, including the state of health, ageing, lifetime of the battery after its first life, price of used batteries, ownership model, location, second-life application, potential grid connection, and electricity profile of the battery system.publishedVersio

Are electric vehicle batteries being underused? A review of current practices and sources of circularity

The increasing demand for Lithium-ion batteries for Electric Vehicle calls for the adoption of sustainable practices and a switch towards a circular economy-based system to ensure that the electrification of transportation does not come at a high environmental cost. While driving patterns have not changed much over the years, the current Electric Vehicle market is evolving towards models with higher battery capacities. In addition, these batteries are considered to reach the End of Life at 70–80% State of Health, regardless of their capacity and application requirements. These issues may cause an underuse of the batteries and, therefore, hinder the sustainability of the Electric Vehicle. The goal of this study is to review and compare the circular processes available around Electric Vehicle batteries. The review highlights the importance of prioritizing the first-life of the battery onboard, starting with reducing the nominal capacity of the models. In cases where the battery is in risk of reaching the End of Life with additional value, Vehicle to Grid is encouraged over the deployment of second-life applications, which are being strongly promoted through institutional fundings in Europe. As a result of the identified research gaps, the methodological framework for the estimation of a functional End of Life is proposed, which constitutes a valuable tool for sustainable decision-making and allows to identify a more accurate End of Life, rather than considering the fixed threshold assumed in the literature.This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 963580. This funding includes funds to support research work and openaccess publications.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

Circular Business Models for the Solar Power Industry - Guide for Policy Makers

Solar power and electric vehicles (EV) are set to play a leading role in the achievement of the 2030 EU renewable targets and the commitment to carbon neutrality by 2050. Importantly, solar photovoltaics (PV), in combination with energy storage, also has the potential to significantly enhance European energy security, provide citizens and industry with competitive energy, and lead to the creation of thousands of jobs in manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and end-of-life management. While the expected rapid growth of the solar power sector over the coming decade will bring along various resource and waste management challenges, following a circular economy strategy can ensure that these will be handled in a proactive and future-proof manner. Furthermore, a circular economy approach will offer the European solar industry new business opportunities in the design and manufacturing of circular-ready products, as well as in the reuse, refurbishment and recycling of older solar panels.In response to the emerging resource and waste challenges of the solar power and battery sectors, the CIRCUSOL Innovation Action project (funded by the Horizon2020 programme of the European Commission) explored a number of innovative approaches and strategies towards circular business models in these two sectors. Specifically, the project focused on four circularity strategies: (1) reuse of discarded PV panels in second-life applications, and enabled through service-based business models; (2) repurposing of EVBs in second-life applications, specifically for stationary storage of solar power, and enabled through service-based business models; (3) ecodesign of PV panels; and (4) recycling of PV panels through innovative techniques.This guide for policy makers is based on the lessons learned in the CIRCUSOL project from 2018-2022. It compiles key findings from the project and seeks to sketch out pathways and strategies on the way forward. As such, the report aims to contribute to a debate across policy makers, industry representatives, experts and other stakeholders about a potential future policy and governance framework that could catalyze the transition towards circular and resource-efficient solar power and EV battery sectors in Europe

EV battery state changes & RL considerations

Electric Vehicles are becoming trendy and proved to have no harmful exhaust like traditional fuel-powered vehicles which makes them one of the best solution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. As the world shifts towards electric vehicle adoption, we will need efficient power sources to provide enough capacity for all these vehicles to function. Lithium-Ion batteries are the driving force behind this new trend. The goal of this research is to analyze the lifespan and long-term ratio composition of Lithium-Ion batteries in electric vehicles by developing two models, an Absorbing Markov Chain model, and a Markov Chain Steady-State Census model. A sensitivity analysis is also conducted to alleviate the scarcity of enough input data. The models show that the lifespan of the new batteries can be extended by 4.5 years, which will have a positive environmental impact and reap economic benefits. Further, the long term composition of batteries in New, remanufactured, repurposed and recycled states can be projected. The increasing demand for EVs globally has created a necessity for more batteries to power them, and these batteries require materials to be made. By considering reverse logistics processes, it is possible to recycle batteries and recover the valuable materials. Not only does this support the environment, but given the rising demand and finite raw material supply, there is an opportunity to capture the economic benefit of recycling. From this research, the recovered materials cobalt, lithium, and nickel are calculated, and this is especially important for the optimal planning of sustainable manufacturing

Mapping of Strategic Factors for 2nd Life Battery Repurposing: A qualitative multiple case study of Norwegian actors

Policies for energy efficiency and renewable energies, as well as consolidating CO2 standards for vehicles, have been implemented to achieve climate targets set by The Paris Climate Agreement. In recent years these actions have led to a boost in the global electrification of the transport sector, and hence Electric Vehicles (EVs). In Norway, EVs represented a market share at 55% in 2020, making the country a first-mover internationally. A Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIB) is removed from the EV when the retaining capacity drops below 80%, which will lead to an increase of decommissioned LIBs in the future. In recent years, the amount of End of Life (EoL) batteries has been seen as a business opportunity, giving rise to several start-ups employing decommissioned EV batteries in second-life applications. This thesis aims to cover a gap in the research literature, focusing on contributing valuable insight with empirical data from the Norwegian repurpose market. Through a qualitative multi-case study design, a selection of established businesses, either directly or indirectly connected to the Norwegian repurpose market, were studied. Findings mapped out strategic factors for repurposers and identified barriers and drivers in the Norwegian repurposing market. The use case of second-life batteries, channels for sourcing second-life batteries, and how the different cases can overcome barriers in the market proved to be the most influential factors. Barriers within the second-life battery market occur due to a lack of market structure and national regulatory standards. Moreover, empirical evidence shows a need for governmental facilitation to expand the market for second-life battery repurposing