Hvor planlegging og design møtes : transformasjon av bystruktur som et resultat av fortettingspolitikken : eksempel Oslo

Over the past few decades, urban planning has been distancing itself from architecture and engineering, becoming increasingly dominated by strategic approaches and goals for sustainability. This shift of focus has created a gap, which is also possible to observe in the Norwegian planning context. Despite this gap, built structures and physical urban form still represent a significant part of the outcomes of urban planning. This empirically based PhD thesis aims to explore the physical outcomes of the current planning for densification in Norway, using Oslo as the case. The study includes two main analytical aspects: spatial and procedural. The main research question posed in the thesis is, “What are the morphological characteristics of the physical outcomes of densification in Oslo, and what spatially related concerns have influenced the design of those outcomes?” Six sub-questions address spatial and procedural components of the analysis in further detail. The field of urban morphology offers theoretical lenses for an integrative analysis of both the spatial and procedural aspects. In the spatial part of the analysis, the main concepts applied are urban tissue, constituted tissue, urban block, and architectural type. The spatial analysis covers the intermediate spatial scale (between a building and several urban blocks). The procedural part of the analysis encompasses three components – planning, actors, and design. The main concepts in this step are planning instrument, strategic and project plans, actors, and the articulation of physical form and architectural functions. The study is designed as an embedded case study, with Oslo (its built-up area) as the main case and 71 multi-family residential buildings as sub-cases. In addressing each research sub-question, specific methods have been used: site visits, analysis of maps and aerial photos, document analysis and interviews. The results expose a large variety of types of previously existing urban tissue that have undergone densification, a considerable variety of physical outputs of densification, and strong interrelations between the pre-existing urban tissue and the new structures. Among the analysed sub-cases, context-dependence appears both in terms of built form and the distribution of architectural functions. Regarding the spatially related concerns that arose in the planning processes, a number of considerations are common in the analysed cases (e.g. building heights and density), while a greater number of the considerations are site-specific, indicating that the design in densification places great attention on the immediate spatial context. Considering the principles of the addition of new built masses at the intermediate spatial scale, the new structures have been added in numerous ways. A fairly surprising finding was that the morphological element of urban block continues to play a significant role in the design of new multi-family residential buildings. Entirely new urban blocks occur both in the pre-existing urban tissue dating from pre-modernist era and in the land-use transformation areas. The new developments also relate to pre-existing urban blocks as additions (infills), thus contributing to a further consolidation of the pre-existing urban blocks. The study also identifies that densification in Oslo produces a particular architectural type, namely the “podium type”, and exposes its varieties relative to the topographic features of the sites. The planning instruments at the municipal planning level (i.e., identified among the analysed cases) partially provided the inputs for the design at the intermediate spatial scale. The analysis exposes a locally adopted planning instrument in Oslo – guiding plan for public spaces (Veiledende plan for offentlige rom [VPOR]), which has been devised with the aim to provide guidelines for design of more coherent urban areas, beyond the extent of particular, individual architectural projects. This instrument indicates the need for planning practice to re-establish connections between planning and design.I løpet av de siste tiårene er byplanleggingen i økende grad blitt dominert av overordnet strategisk tenking og mål for bærekraft, og har distansert seg fra arkitektur og prosjektering. Denne endringen av fokus har skapt en kløft som også er mulig å observere i norsk planleggingssammenheng. Til tross for denne kløften, representerer bygde strukturer og fysisk byform fortsatt en betydelig del av resultatene fra byplanlegging. Denne empiribaserte PhD-avhandlingen tar sikte på å utforske de fysiske resultatene av nåværende planlegging for fortetting i Norge og bruker Oslo som case. Studien omfatter to analytiske aspekter: romlig og prosessuell analyse. Det overordnede forskningsspørsmålet som stilles i oppgaven er: “Hva er de morfologiske egenskapene til de fysiske resultatene av fortetting i Oslo, og hvilke romlige hensyn har påvirket utformingen av disse resultatene?” Seks underspørsmål tar for seg de romlige og prosessuelle komponentene av de to analytiske aspektene. Bymorfologi tilbyr et teoretisk perspektiv for å analysere både de romlige og prosessuelle aspekter på en integrert måte. I den romlige analysen er følgende hovedbegrep benyttet: byvev, konstituert byvev (byvev før fortetting), kvartal og bygningstype. Den romlige analysen dekker den romlige skalaen på mellomliggende nivå (mellom en bygning og flere kvartaler). Den prosessuelle delen av analysen omfatter tre komponenter: planlegging, aktører og design. Denne delen av analysen undersøker planleggingsinstrumenter, aktører og artikulering av fysisk form og arkitektoniske funksjoner. Studien bygger på en integrert (“embedded”) casestudie med Oslo (det bebygde området) som case og 71 flerfamilieboliger som under-case. For å belyse hvert enkelt underspørsmål er følgende metoder brukt: feltstudier, analyse av kart og flyfoto, dokumentanalyse og intervjuer. Resultatene avdekker at fortettingen i Oslo har foregått i mange forskjellige varianter av eksisterende byvev og har resultert i en stor variasjon av fortettingsformer (f.eks. infill, transformasjon, etc.). Klaresammenhenger mellom den eksisterende byveven og de nye strukturene er også identifisert. Blant de analyserte under-casene vises tegn på kontekstavhengighet både når det gjelder bygd form og fordelingen av arkitektoniske funksjoner. Analysen av casene avdekket også at noen av de romlig relaterte hensynene som ble diskutert i planprosessene, var felles (f.eks. byggehøyder og tetthet), mens flere av hensynene var stedsspesifikke. Dette indikerer at utformingen i tilknytning til fortettingsprosesser i stor grad tar hensyn til den nære romlige konteksten. På den mellomliggende (“intermediate”) romlige skalaen, er den nye bebyggelsen innpasset på mange måter. Et noe overraskende funn var at det morfologiske elementet kvartal fortsetter å spille en betydelig rolle i utformingen av nye flerfamilieboliger. Helt nye kvartaler forekommer både i den eksisterende byveven som stammer fra førmodernistisk tid og i transformasjonsområder. De nye boligprosjektene kan også være en utvidelse av eksisterende kvartaler (såkalte “infills”), og bidrar dermed til å konsolidere kvartalsformen ytterligere. Studien har videre identifisert at fortetting i Oslo resulterer i en bestemt bygningstype, nemlig “podiumtype”, og viser varianter av denne typen tilpasset områdets topografiske trekk. Planleggingsinstrumentene som ble identifisert på kommunalt plannivå i de analyserte casene ga delvis innspill til prosjekteringen på mellomliggende romlig skala. Analysen avdekket bruk av et lokalt vedtatt planleggingsinstrument i Oslo – Veiledende plan for offentlige rom (Veiledende plan for offentlige rom [VPOR]). VPOR er i hovedsak utarbeidet for å gi retningslinjer for utforming av mer sammenhengende byområder, men gir noen prinsipper for de individuelle arkitektoniske prosjektene. Dette indikerer at det var et behov i (praktisk) planlegging for å gjenopprette forbindelsen mellom planlegging og design og bidro muligens til at Plan- og bygningsloven av 2008 introduserte områderegulering som et nytt planleggingsinstrument

Solving residual spaces: a template for cities in envisaging disregarded public space into places that encourage and promote socio-economic development and prioritise pedestrianism

This document intends to chronicle a narrative working process which is the basis of this urban design project. The research involves a sixmonth investigation into current urban design theory and practice applied to the city as well as site scale. The design commences with an intention which is informed by a combination of theoretical, surrogate, factual and contextualised factors. The process has been one of reconciling the blurred boundaries between conflicting ideas of a design that is economically realisable in the short term and experimenting with new and largely unexplored ways of city-making in radically changing cities in which urban land is scarce and increasingly valuable. Parts One and Two of this document are intended to be independent of Parts Three and Four. The initial chapters are an investigation into challenges of any modern city and the final chapter is an illustration of a solution to only chosen site

New Pathways to support social-ecological Systems in Change

Klimawandel und Biodiversitätsverlust sowie Verstädterung und demografischer Wandel haben tiefgreifende Auswirkungen auf Städte und ihre Ökosysteme und damit auf die Lebensbedingungen der Mehrheit der Menschheit. Die Geschwindigkeit des Wandels und die Dringlichkeit der Folgen macht Umweltmonitoring zu einem potentiell interessanten Tool für nachhaltige und resiliente Stadtentwicklung. Der erste Artikel gibt einen Überblick über den aktuellen Stand der Fernerkundung in Bezug auf Stadtökologie und zeigt, dass Fernerkundung relevant für nachhaltige Stadtplanung ist. Es bestehen jedoch bestehen Mängel, da viele Studien nicht direkt umsetzbar sind. Der zweite Artikel zeigt, dass eine wachsende Stadt Möglichkeiten für den Ausbau der grünen Infrastruktur bieten kann. Im dritten Artikel wird untersucht, wie sich die städtische Dichte auf die Bereitstellung von Ökosystemdienstleistungen der grünen Infrastruktur auswirkt. Es wird gezeigt, dass eine hohe Siedlungsdichte nicht zwangsläufig zu einem geringeren Biodiversitätspotenzial oder einer geringeren Kühlkapazität führt. Allerdings sind dicht bebaute Gebiete mit geringer Vegetationsbedeckung besonders auf grüne Infrastruktur angewiesen. Der vierte Artikel befasst sich mit der Frage, wie naturbasierte Lösungen durch eine bessere Vernetzung der Beteiligten gestärkt werden können. Auf der Grundlage einer gezielten Literaturrecherche über Informationstechnologie zur Unterstützung sozial-ökologischer Systeme wird ein Instrument zur Entscheidungshilfe entwickelt. Dieses kombiniert ökologische und soziale Indikatoren, um Klimawandeladaption in Übereinstimmung mit den sozio-ökologischen Bedingungen entwickeln zu können. Der fünfte Artikel bietet eine grundsätzliche Perspektive zur Unterstützung der städtischen Nachhaltigkeit, die auf dem ökologischen-Trait Konzept basiert. Zusammen bieten die fünf Artikel Wege für die Fernerkundungswissenschaft und die angewandte Raumplanung für nachhaltige und resiliente Entwicklungen in Städten.Climate change and biodiversity loss, as well as urbanisation and demographic change, are major global challenges of the 21st century. These trends have profound impacts on cities and their ecosystems and thus on the living conditions of the majority of humanity. This raises the need for timely environmental monitoring supporting sustainable and resilient urban developments. The first article is an overview of the state of the art of remote sensing science in relation to urban ecology. The review found that remote sensing can contribute to sustainable urban policy, still insufficiencies remain as many studies are not directly actionable. The second article shows that a growing city can provide opportunities for an increase in green infrastructure. Here, remote sensing is used for long-term analysis of land-use in relation to urban forms in Berlin. The third article examines how urban density affects ecosystem service provision of urban green infrastructure. It is shown that residential density does not necessarily lead to poor biodiversity potential or cooling capacity. However, dense areas with low vegetation cover are particularly dependent on major green infrastructure. The fourth article explores ways to reinforce nature-based solutions by better connecting and informing stakeholders. Based on a focussed literature review on information technology supporting urban social-ecological systems, a decision support tool is developed. The tool combines indicators based on ecological diversity and performance with population density and vulnerability. This way, climate change adaptation can be developed in accordance with socio-ecological conditions. The concluding fifth article offers an outlook on a larger framework in support of urban sustainability, based on the ecological trait concept. Together the five research papers provide pathways for urban remote sensing science and applied spatial planning that can support sustainable and resilient developments in cities

ADVANCED CERAMIC MATERIALS FOR DENTAL APPLICATIONS SINTERED BY MICROWAVE HEATING

[EN] Zirconia has become a widely utilized structural ceramic material with important applications in dentistry due to its superb mechanical properties, biocompatibility, aesthetic characteristics and durability. Zirconia needs to be stabilized in the t-phase to obtain improved mechanical properties such as hardness and fracture toughness. Fully dense yttria-stabilized tetragonal zirconia polycrystalline (Y-TZP) materials are normally consolidated through the energy-intensive processing of powders at very high temperatures (>1000 °C). Innovative non-conventional approaches are being developed to reduce time and energy consumption and, consequently, environmental impact in ceramic powder processing. Microwave sintering is one such approach aimed at fully-densifying ceramics by using a different heating mechanism based on the material's inherent dielectric properties. The main purpose of this work is to obtain highly dense Y-TZP dental materials from commercial and lab-prepared sources via microwave sintering with mechanical and microstructural qualities that are similar or even improved with respect to their conventionally sintered counterparts. Therefore, its effect on important aspects related to dental applications has been studied. First, Y-TZP ceramics have been characterized upon sintering to determine whether the resulting properties meet the minimum mechanical requirements for structural dental applications. Second, the influence of microwave sintering on hydrothermal degradation, a spontaneous ageing phenomenon that affects zirconia materials in wet conditions, has been investigated. And third, the behavior under fretting wear conditions of microwave and conventionally sintered materials has been assessed to evaluate their durability and performance. The main conclusions indicate that microwave sintering allows proper consolidation of dental Y-TZP materials resulting in a finer microstructure due to shorter processing time and mechanical properties comparable, and in some cases enhanced, to those obtained in conventional sintered materials at lower dwell temperatures. Additionally, a higher resistance to hydrothermal degradation has been determined for microwave sintered materials due to a finer grain size and lower sintering temperatures that reduce the presence of cubic phase, which is responsible for destabilizing neighboring tetragonal phase grains. Finally, a similar wear rate has been obtained between microwave and conventional sintering of zirconia materials under fretting wear conditions. In addition, humidity can reduce the wear volume loss due to the lubricative effect of water and wear of degraded materials might increase the resistance due to the formation of a protective debris layer. In general, microwave sintering can be an interesting alternative for obtaining fully-densified Y-TZP dental materials providing certain advantages over conventional methods. Nonetheless, more studies are still necessary to have a better understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of microwave sintering of zirconia ceramics.[ES] La circona es un material ampliamente utilizado como cerámica estructural con aplicaciones en el ámbito dental debido a sus propiedades mecánicas, biocompatibilidad, características estéticas y durabilidad. Para poder aprovechar las altas propiedades mecánicas de la circona, es necesario estabilizarla en su fase tetragonal. Los materiales de circona policristalina estabilizada con itria (Y-TZP) se consolidan normalmente a través de polvos mediante procesos energéticamente intensivos a altas temperaturas (>1000 °C). Actualmente, se están desarrollando técnicas basadas en métodos no convencionales para reducir el tiempo y el consumo energético en el procesado de polvos cerámicos. La sinterización por microondas tiene por objetivo la densificación completa mediante la utilización de mecanismos de calentamiento basados en las propiedades dieléctricas del material. El objetivo principal es la obtención de materiales dentales de Y-TZP altamente densos mediante la sinterización por microondas con propiedades mecánicas y microestructurales similares, o incluso por encima de las obtenidas por el método convencional. Para ello, se estudian aspectos relevantes al ámbito dental. En primer lugar, los materiales son caracterizados con el fin de determinar si las propiedades finales cumplen con los requisitos mecánicos para aplicaciones dentales. Además, se ha investigado la influencia de la sinterización por microondas en la degradación hidrotérmica, un fenómeno espontáneo de envejecimiento que afecta a los materiales de circona en condiciones de humedad. Finalmente, se ha evaluado el comportamiento en condiciones de desgaste fretting de los materiales sinterizados para determinar su durabilidad. Las conclusiones principales indican que la sinterización por microondas permite la consolidación adecuada de estos materiales, resultando en una microestructura más fina debido a los tiempos más cortos de procesado y en propiedades mecánicas comparables a las de materiales obtenidos mediante el método convencional, incluso a temperaturas más bajas. Una mayor resistencia a la degradación hidrotérmica se ha determinado en materiales sinterizados por microondas. Al emplear temperaturas más bajas se reduce la presencia de fase cúbica, la cual es responsable por la desestabilización de granos adyacentes de fase tetragonal. Tasas de desgaste similares han sido observadas entre materiales sinterizados por microondas y convencionalmente bajo condiciones de desgaste fretting. Adicionalmente, la humedad puede reducir sustancialmente la pérdida de volumen de desgaste debido al efecto lubricante del agua y los materiales degradados pueden aumentar la resistencia a este tipo de desgaste como consecuencia de la formación de una capa protectora de material que se desprende más fácil. En general, la sinterización por microondas es una alternativa interesante para obtener materiales dentales de Y-TZP altamente densos con ciertas ventajas sobre los métodos convencionales pero deben considerarse también las desventajas de esta técnica.[CA] La circona és un material àmpliament utilitzat com a ceràmica estructural amb aplicacions en l'àmbit dental a causa de les seues propietats mecàniques, biocompatibilidad, característiques estètiques i durabilitat. Per a poder aprofitar les altes propietats mecàniques de la circona, és necessari estabilitzar-la en la seua fase tetragonal. Els materials de circona policristalina estabilitzada amb itria (Y-TZP) es consoliden normalment mitjançant processos energèticament intensius a altes temperatures (>1000 °C). Actualment, s'estan desenvolupant tècniques basades en mètodes no convencionals per a reduir el temps i el consum energètic en el processament de la pols ceràmicas. La sinterització per microones té per objectiu la densificació completa mitjançant la utilització de mecanismes d'escalfament basats en les propietats dielèctriques del material. L'objectiu principal d'aquesta tesi és l'obtenció de materials dentals de Y-TZP altament densos mitjançant la sinterització per microones amb propietats mecàniques i microestructurals superiors a les obtingudes per mètodes convencionals. En primer lloc, els materials seràn caracteritzats per a determinar si les propietats finals compleixen amb els requisits mecànics per a aplicacions dentals. En segon lloc, s'investigarà la influència de la sinterització per microones en la degradació hidrotèrmica, un fenomen espontani d'envelliment que afecta als materials de circona en condicions d'humitat. I en tercer lloc, s'avaluarà el comportament en condicions de desgast fretting dels materials sinteritzats per a determinar la seua durabilitat. Les conclusions principals indiquen que la sinterització per microones permet la consolidació adequada i millorada de materials de Y-TZP, amb una microestructura més fina a causa dels temps més curts de processament i propietats mecàniques comparables a les de materials obtinguts mitjançant el mètode convencional, fins i tot a temperatures més baixes. Un factor positiu ha sigut la major resistència a la degradació hidrotèrmica en materials sinteritzats per microones. A més, al emprar temperatures més baixes es redueix la presència de fase cúbica, la qual és la responsable de la desestabilització de grans adjacents de fase tetragonal. Finalment, sota condicions de desgast fretting, s'han observat taxes de desgast similars entre materials sinteritzats per microones i via convencional. Addicionalment, en condicions de 100% d'humitat es pot reduir substancialment la pèrdua de volum de desgast a causa de l'efecte lubrificant de l'aigua i materials degradats, els quals poden augmentar la resistència a aquest tipus de desgast com a conseqüència de la formació d'una capa protectora de material que es desprèn amb més facilitat. En general, la sinterització per microones és una alternativa molt interessant per a obtindre materials dentals Y-TZP òptims i amb certes avantatges sobre els mètodes convencionals, però han de considerar-se també algunes desavantatges d'aquesta tècnica.Presenda Barrera, Á. (2016). ADVANCED CERAMIC MATERIALS FOR DENTAL APPLICATIONS SINTERED BY MICROWAVE HEATING [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/68510TESI