159 research outputs found
Election Dispute Resolution and Justice as Fairness: A Study of Regional Head Elections in Indonesia
An investigation on public participation of cultural heritage protection in China's small cities
This research investigates the relationship between public participation and cultural heritage protection in small cities in China, with a focus on exploring the potential of integrating economic theory into cultural heritage preservation. The study is motivated by the global importance of cultural heritage, the diverse perspectives on heritage preservation, and the significance of public
involvement in safeguarding heritage. The research aims to address the challenges and complexities associated with cultural heritage preservation and examine the applicability of the "triple bottom line" theory in economics to sociology.
The research objectives are to identify the main problems of public participation in cultural heritage protection in China, understand the relationship between practice and theory in cultural heritage preservation, and explore the potential of economic theory in serving sociology. The research methodology involves a combination of qualitative and comparative analysis approaches, including literature review, comparative analysis, case studies, interviews, surveys, and data analysis. The findings from the research contribute to knowledge by exploring social constructivism and the integration of economic theory into cultural heritage preservation. The study provides insights into the main problems of public participation in cultural heritage protection in China under current political, economic, and social conditions. Additionally, it examines the relationship between public participation and local urban development through the lens of social constructivism. Furthermore, the research explores the potential of
applying the "triple bottom line" theory in economics to serve sociology, particularly in the context of cultural heritage preservation.
By addressing these research questions, the study offers recommendations and insights for effective cultural heritage preservation strategies, public participation frameworks, and the application of sustainable development principles. The findings can inform policymakers, practitioners, and
stakeholders involved in heritage preservation, contributing to the development of sustainable and inclusive models of cultural heritage protection in small cities in China. Overall, this research aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge on cultural heritage preservation and promote the sustainable safeguarding of cultural heritage for future generations
Unlocking the Pragmatics of Emoji: Evaluation of the Integration of Pragmatic Markers for Sarcasm Detection
Emojis have become an integral element of online communications, serving as a powerful, under-utilised resource for enhancing pragmatic understanding in NLP. Previous works have highlighted their potential for improvement of more complex tasks such as the identification of figurative literary devices including sarcasm due to their role in conveying tone within text. However present state-of-the-art does not include the consideration of emoji or adequately address sarcastic markers such as sentiment incongruence. This work aims to integrate these concepts to generate more robust solutions for sarcasm detection leveraging enhanced pragmatic features from both emoji and text tokens. This was achieved by establishing methodologies for sentiment feature extraction from emojis and a depth statistical evaluation of the features which characterise sarcastic text on Twitter. Current convention for generation of training data which implements weak-labelling using hashtags or keywords was evaluated against a human-annotated baseline; postulated validity concerns were verified where statistical evaluation found the content features deviated significantly from the baseline, highlighting potential validity concerns for many prominent works on the topic to date. Organic labelled sarcastic tweets containing emojis were crowd sourced by means of a survey to ensure valid outcomes for the sarcasm detection model. Given an established importance of both semantic and sentiment information, a novel sentiment-aware attention mechanism was constructed to enhance pattern recognition, balancing core features of sarcastic text: sentiment incongruence and context. This work establishes a framework for emoji feature extraction; a key roadblock cited in literature for their use in NLP tasks. The proposed sarcasm detection pipeline successfully facilitates the task using a GRU neural network with sentiment-aware attention, at an accuracy of 73% and promising indications regarding model robustness as part of a framework which is easily scalable for the inclusion of any future emojis released. Both enhanced sentiment information to supplement context in addition to consideration of the emoji were found to improve outcomes for the task
Технология комплексной поддержки жизненного цикла семантически совместимых интеллектуальных компьютерных систем нового поколения
В издании представлено описание текущей версии открытой технологии онтологического проектирования, производства и эксплуатации семантически совместимых гибридных интеллектуальных компьютерных систем (Технологии OSTIS). Предложена стандартизация интеллектуальных компьютерных систем, а также стандартизация методов и
средств их проектирования, что является важнейшим фактором, обеспечивающим семантическую совместимость интеллектуальных компьютерных систем и их компонентов, что
существенное снижение трудоемкости разработки таких систем.
Книга предназначена всем, кто интересуется проблемами искусственного интеллекта, а также специалистам в области интеллектуальных компьютерных систем и инженерии знаний. Может быть использована студентами, магистрантами и аспирантами специальности «Искусственный интеллект».
Табл. 8. Ил. 223. Библиогр.: 665 назв
Abduction as a Mode of Inference in Science Education
The central argument of this article is that abduction as a “mode of inference” is a key element in the nature of scientists’ science and should consequently be introduced in school science. Abduction generally understood as generation and selection of hypotheses permits to articulate the classical scientific contexts of discovery and justification and provides educational insights into scientific methodology, this being a particularly important issue in science teaching. However, abductive reasoning has been marginally treated in the philosophy of science until relatively recently; accordingly, we deem it important to perform an “archaeology” of the concept that considers C. S. Peirce’s seminal contributions. We also choose to review contemporary treatments in order to recognise useful classifications to support more meaningful ways of teaching science and the nature of science. An elucidation of the participation of abductive inferences in knowledge construction seems necessary for us to derive conceptual input for the understanding and design of explanations in school science. Some prospective examples of “school scientific abduction” are discussed in the article through the lens of the results of our theoretical analysis.Fil: Aduriz Bravo, Agustin. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales. Centro de Formación e Investigación en Enseñanza de las Ciencias; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; ArgentinaFil: Sans Pinillos, Alger. Universita degli Studi di Pavia; Itali
Evaluation model of privacy policy information transparency
Cilj ove disertacije je izraditi model vrjednovanja informacijske transparentnosti politika privatnosti temeljen na polazišnoj pretpostavci da učinkoviti mehanizmi transparentnosti trebaju težiti smanjivanju informacijske asimetrije između organizacija koje prikupljaju i obrađuju podatke ispitanika te samih ispitanika. U tu svrhu postavljena je analitička matrica kojom se analizom sadržaja tekstova politika privatnosti ispitivala ispunjenost definiranih zahtjeva na teorijski definiranim dimenzijama informacijske transparentnosti, teorijski uvjetno nazvanima vidljivost i inferabilnost, kao operacionaliziranim jedinicama mjerenja određenih stupnjeva informacijske simetrije kao pokazatelja informacijske transparentnosti u međusobnoj korelaciji. Svaka od dimenzija je, nadalje, operacionalizirana je preko određenog broja indikatora i pod-indikatora kao pretpostavljenih zahtjeva koje bi politika privatnosti trebala ispuniti, odnosno zadovoljiti pri postizanju informacijske simetrije prema ispitanicima. Stoga su i zahtjevima dodijeljeni odgovarajući ponderi prema teorijski pretpostavljenoj važnosti pojedinog pod-indikatora u definiranju indikatora, a čija suma iznosi najviše 1 kao „mjera“ ispunjenosti zahtjeva u potpunosti. Primjenom faktorske analize nad prikupljenim podacima, na uzorku od 152 zdravstvene ustanove u javnom i privatnom sektoru na području Republike Hrvatske, izrađen je i validan konceptualni model kojim se prikazuju utjecaji pojedinih faktora na informacijsku transparentnost, odnosno smanjenje informacijske asimetrije između navedenih dionika, prilikom čega su izdvojeni i rezultati drugih statističkih analiza nad uzorkom. Modelom vrjednovanja informacijske transparentnosti na učinkovitost mehanizama transparentnosti u većoj mjeri utječu faktori vidljivosti, definirani odrednicama slojevitosti, ažuriranosti i informativnosti, u odnosu na faktore inferabilnosti, definirane kroz odrednice pristupačnosti, smislenosti i razumljivosti politika privatnosti. I iako međusobno ne koreliraju, definirane faktore moguće je iskoristiti za određivanje stupnja informacijske asimetrije politika privatnosti s ciljem njenog smanjenja korištenjem rezultata analize valjanosti podudaranja provedene tijekom validacije modela. Prilagodbom pojedinih odrednica na temelju dobivenih vrijednosti odstupanja od referentnih vrijednosti na temelju prosjeka ispitanih ustanova, ostvarivo je upravljanje učinkovitošću mehanizmima informacijske transparentnosti.In today's information abundance, information transparency is becoming an integral part of human rights and freedom in digital environments. The rights of the individuals to make their own choice are becoming stronger in the field of privacy protection, and with overall digital transformation, they are increasingly focused on the protection of personal data collected and processed about data subjects. In the environment of modern liberal-based social systems, individuals are placed in a role of mature and free data subjects, with extensive rights to know what data is collected and processed so that they can determine what information they want to share with whom. Also, they have a right to withdraw from undesirable and optional data processing or request the deletion or anonymization of their personal data. These rights to transparency and intervention are described by the term "user-oriented privacy", a concept whose basic idea is that respondents make informed decisions about disclosing personal data, as disclosing their personal data can change the distribution of power in relationships and create damages and risks to them. But for individuals to be able to make informed decisions and have control over their privacy, mechanisms need to be provided to ensure these rights. Therefore, the aim of transparency is to reduce the existing high information asymmetry between data controllers and data subjects, as subsequent cannot always determine what data is collected about them, to what extent and for what purpose. And in order to meet the requirements of the principles of data protection and privacy, transparency should be meaningful and meet the requirements in relation to the possibility of intervenability as a goal of privacy. In doing so, mechanisms for achieving intervenability should provide respondents with clear, prominent, easily understandable, accessible tools for consuming the right to choose in relation to the processing of their personal data, as well the rights to interrupt the processing of certain data, delete data, correct them and other related rights. In the disciplines of information management, business and information ethics, the term transparency is usually used for forms of information visibility and access to information, intentions or behaviours that are thus intentionally revealed, representing a form of communication that transmits signals between processors data and individuals, and in order to achieve the effectiveness of the tool, i.e. increase transparency, it is necessary to eliminate or minimize any "noise" as a disruptive factor in the communication process. In the context of Shannon-Weaver's mathematical model of the communication system, two essentially diverse ways of transmitting messages are distinguished: via discrete signals and via continuous signals. Discrete signals can represent only a finite number of different, recognizable states, while for continuous signals the amounts of signals can vary in an infinite set of values. In this reference framework and the broader thematic framework of privacy assurance, the former can correspond to ex-ante, tools which provide the necessary information to the data subjects before collecting and processing data, and the latter as ex-post transparency tools that provide the necessary information to the data subjects after data collection and processing. In the described context of transparency tools and technologies, privacy policy is set as an ex-ante tool for raising awareness of respondents, but also as a tool of data controller declarations, serving as the basis for user conscious decisions regarding the protection of personal data. It is a document, a set of data within limited letters, perceived as a discrete communication system, with the aim of informing data subjects with the procedures of the system or organization regarding the collection, sharing, use and storage of their personal data, showing the entire life cycle of personal data within some organization. Today, reporting on data collection and processing practices is an important aspect of data protection frameworks and regulations, such as the General Regulation on Personal Data Protection in European Union, and the effectiveness of this mechanism is an important aspect in examining information transparency. So, in order to achieve a state of information symmetry, effective transparency tools need to meet certain requirements on both dimensions of transparency. The dimension of visibility, focused on the content determinant of transparency, which reflects the degree of completeness of information and the possibility of finding it, and the dimension of inferability, characterized by qualitative characteristics of the mechanism of transparency, reflecting the degree to which information can be used to make the right decisions. The purpose of the research is to develop a model for calculating the levels of information transparency of privacy policies in deviations towards achieving optimal transparency results, i.e. information symmetry, as a basis for improving the effectiveness of transparency mechanisms. The specific goal of the research is to identify factors of dimensions of information transparency, their mutual relationship and intensity of connections as constructs within designed model of privacy policy evaluation. Based on the theoretical study, the relevant factors are determined on the dimension of visibility: 1) informativeness, 2) currentness and 3) accessibility of the text. The dimension of inferability is determined by: 1) layering, 2) conciseness and 3) understandability of the content. With proposed research the following hypotheses were tested: H1) The degree of information asymmetry can be determined using the degrees of visibility and infectivity factors; H2) The degree of information asymmetry is significantly influenced by visibility factors compared to infectivity factors and H3) By applying the designed model, it is possible to assess the information transparency of privacy policies. The study is dominated by a primarily quantitative approach to content analysis of privacy policies. The research was conducted on the documents of 152 health care institutions, of which 56 institutions are in the public health care system, while the remaining institutions are health care institutions in private sector. The reason for this is that many public health care institutions during the research in April and May 2021. did not have available privacy policies on their respected websites. That is, out of 148 health care institutions in the public health care system declared on the website of the Ministry of Health, only 37% had published their privacy policies with a unified content identifier (URI) as a set condition for sample selection. After the design of an analytical matrix and coding sheet, during the data collection, first the number of interactions required to access privacy policies as a basis for calculating the accessibility requirement coefficient and determining whether the content layering requirement was recorded (through subheadings of certain document sections or other hypertext formatting options). In the next step, the text of the document was copied and pasted into a blank Word application document in which a unit of further analysis was set up: titles were removed, e-mail addresses and hyperlinks were replaced with X not to affect results of syllable count. Furthermore, through the Wordcount option, the number of words and the number of characters (without spaces) were recorded, while the number of sentences was counted "manually" by the author, professor of Croatian language and literature. The text was then copied into the computer tool syllablecounter.org, which was selected as the most reliable for calculating the number of records after comparing the results of manual counting and by comparing different computer programs for counting records in the text. Furthermore, to help analyse the number of lexical words, the text is then copied to the text analysis tool on online-utility.org website to single out occurrences in relation to their frequency of occurrences in the text. In the next steps, the content analysis method was used to examine the fulfilment of informativeness requirements through the presence of criteria defined in the analytical matrix, then currentness, in relation to the date of publication or update of the document and information on how to inform respondents about changes in privacy policies in this document. Furthermore, based on the obtained results of the number of syllables, words and sentences, using the Flesch Reading Ease (FRE) formula for readability, the indices of text understandability were calculated, and by using The Flesch-Kincaid grade level formula the level of education of the respondents for understanding the privacy notice were determined in reference to the of 2011 census results in Croatia. Furthermore, the number of lexemes was put in proportion to the total number of words as the lexical density is set as a reference for conciseness requirement testing. The analysis was performed in the computer program Excel using custom formulas of for the Croatian language. In the absence of similar analytical matrices for measuring transparency policies, the design and content validation of the analytical matrix was carried out during the research. Firstly, as all determinants of transparency dimensions were directly operationalized, i.e. each of them was measured through only one indicator, with a different number of subindicators, while the determinant of informativeness was measured through a total of 14 indicators, in order to determine the consistency of the selected 14 indicators as a reliable instrument for measuring the determinant of informativeness, a reliability analysis (Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient) was performed on data collected from a sample of public institutions and institutions in private sector as well. Both results indicate a very good reliability. Then the results of visibility and inferability dimensions obtained at 56 public health institutions were compared with those obtained at 96 private public institutions throughout t-test methods, showing that data collected is consistent. Based on the obtained research results, a conceptual model of evaluating information transparency was developed in relation to the defined dimensions of information transparency at the first level, and then in relation to the obtained factor saturations of individual determinants at each of the dimensions at the second level. In reference to results, determinants were set to reflect different distribution, as determinants of accessibility and layering substituted. Although the analysis of the collected results showed that the two dimensions, visibility and inferability are not correlated, that is the correlation between these two latent variables is close to zero, contrary to the theoretical assumption, both dimensions can be treated as separate variables or constructs. As results of performed two-factor analysis, the values of each dimension contribution in explaining the variance were calculated that can be used as a basis for model development. In absolute terms, the "share" of the visibility dimension is 32.04%, and inferability is 19.34%, which together makes 51.38% of the variance explained by the set two-factor model. That is, in relative terms, if the explained variance is set as 100%, then its visibility contributes 62.36%, and inferability 37.64% to the information transparency results. From the obtained results of calculated factor scores each determinant can be put in relation to determined transparency dimension, assessing its impact to information transparency. Results have shown that informativeness requirements have the greatest impact on the results in the visibility dimension, which is expected, since this indicator only consists of the most sub-indicators (14 of them) compared to other indicators. Furthermore, to a lesser extent, the results in the dimension are affected by the requirements for layering of the text, while the least affected they are by the currentness requirements, i.e. the publication of dates and ways of informing respondents when changing privacy policies. On the dimension of inferability, the results of information transparency are mostly influenced by the requirement of conciseness as the results of lexical density, and then the requirement of accessibility, reflected in the number of interactions to the text of the privacy policy and finally understandability an indicator of the quality and appropriateness of the language in which the information is provided in relation to the target group. However, since the results presented by the conceptual model in their interrelation represent the impact of individual determinants and dimensions of transparency on the overall result of information transparency of individual institutions, they can be directed towards examining privacy policies transparency depending on their impact on the overall result of information (a)symmetry. Therefore, the result of information (a)symmetry as a dependent variable in relation to the analysis of variances of set factor scores on both dimensions of transparency can be examined in order to test auxiliary hypotheses obtained by the set model. By conducting a Goodness-of-Fit analysis in relation to the reference results of the average results on both dimensions it was possible to determine deviations from the results in relation to changes in individual variations of factor scores over the collected data to validate model. In relation to the obtained average of all institutions in the visibility dimension, which is 0.39, the greatest influence on the results of information transparency has the determinant of layering, followed by currentness and, finally, informativeness. Furthermore, on the dimension of inferability in relation to the obtained average of all institutions, which is 0.29, from the obtained results it is possible to conclude that the determinant of understandability does indeed have the least influence on the results of information transparency. It is also possible to conclude that the determinant of accessibility has the greatest impact on the information transparency of the dimension in question. In relation to the calculated reference average of all institutions on the inferability dimension, 46 institutions have achieved above-average results were singled out, while 76 of them on the visibility dimension, which corresponds to the statement that determinants on the visibility dimension to a greater extent contribute to reducing information asymmetry. Regarding the tested hypothesis, it is concluded that H1 is confirmed as the degree of information asymmetry can be determined using the degrees of visibility and inferability factors; by interpreting the results when conducting factor analysis over the dimensions of visibility and inferability explained variance over the investigated sample H2 is also confirmed, as the degree of information asymmetry is significantly influenced by visibility factors compared to inferability factors; while H3 is rejected, giving the diverse results within set model and its validation and by applying the designed model, it is not possible to assess the information transparency of privacy policies. The obtained results, although, in their mutual relationship represent a kind of ordinal scale which shows the impact of individual determinants and dimensions of transparency on the overall result of information transparency of an individual institution. Since this result is taken as a measure of the effectiveness of the transparency mechanism, the results can be directed towards examining privacy policies in relation to the requirements met on individual determinants of transparency dimensions, depending on their impact on the overall information symmetry score. Therefore, the research results can serve as a basis for the development of guidelines for ensuring effective transparency tools, but also for the development of algorithms for a multi-criteria simulation model based on modern technologies. Furthermore, this research should significantly contribute to the current literature in the field of requirements engineering, integrating the concept of information (a)symmetry as an element of evaluating the performance of information transparency mechanisms
Methods in Contemporary Linguistics
The present volume is a broad overview of methods and methodologies in linguistics, illustrated with examples from concrete research. It collects insights gained from a broad range of linguistic sub-disciplines, ranging from core disciplines to topics in cross-linguistic and language-internal diversity or to contributions towards language, space and society. Given its critical and innovative nature, the volume is a valuable source for students and researchers of a broad range of linguistic interests
Reading Polish with Czech Eyes: Distance and Surprisal in Quantitative, Qualitative, and Error Analyses of Intelligibility
In CHAPTER I, I first introduce the thesis in the context of the project workflow in section 1. I then summarise the methods and findings from the project publications about the languages in focus. There I also introduce the relevant concepts and terminology viewed in the literature as possible predictors of intercomprehension and processing difficulty. CHAPTER II presents a quantitative (section 4) and a qualitative (section 5) analysis of the results of the cooperative translation experiments. The focus of this thesis – the language pair PL-CS – is explained and the hypotheses are introduced in section 6. The experiment website is introduced in section 7 with an overview over participants, the different experiments conducted and in which section they are discussed. In CHAPTER IV, free translation experiments are discussed in which two different sets of individual word stimuli were presented to Czech readers: (i) Cognates that are transformable with regular PL-CS correspondences (section 12) and (ii) the 100 most frequent PL nouns (section 13). CHAPTER V presents the findings of experiments in which PL NPs in two different linearisation conditions were presented to Czech readers (section 14.1-14.6). A short digression is made when I turn to experiments with PL internationalisms which were presented to German readers (14.7). CHAPTER VI discusses the methods and results of cloze translation experiments with highly predictable target words in sentential context (section 15) and random context with sentences from the cooperative translation experiments (section 16). A final synthesis of the findings, together with an outlook, is provided in CHAPTER VII.In KAPITEL I stelle ich zunächst die These im Kontext des Projektablaufs in Abschnitt 1 vor. Anschließend fasse ich die Methoden und Erkenntnisse aus den Projektpublikationen zu den untersuchten Sprachen zusammen. Dort stelle ich auch die relevanten Konzepte und die Terminologie vor, die in der Literatur als mögliche Prädiktoren für Interkomprehension und Verarbeitungsschwierigkeiten angesehen werden. KAPITEL II enthält eine quantitative (Abschnitt 4) und eine qualitative (Abschnitt 5) Analyse der Ergebnisse der kooperativen Übersetzungsexperimente. Der Fokus dieser Arbeit - das Sprachenpaar PL-CS - wird erläutert und die Hypothesen werden in Abschnitt 6 vorgestellt. Die Experiment-Website wird in Abschnitt 7 mit einer Übersicht über die Teilnehmer, die verschiedenen durchgeführten Experimente und die Abschnitte, in denen sie besprochen werden, vorgestellt. In KAPITEL IV werden Experimente zur freien Übersetzung besprochen, bei denen tschechischen Lesern zwei verschiedene Sätze einzelner Wortstimuli präsentiert wurden: (i) Kognaten, die mit regulären PL-CS-Korrespondenzen umgewandelt werden können (Abschnitt 12) und (ii) die 100 häufigsten PL-Substantive (Abschnitt 13). KAPITEL V stellt die Ergebnisse von Experimenten vor, in denen tschechischen Lesern PL-NP in zwei verschiedenen Linearisierungszuständen präsentiert wurden (Abschnitt 14.1-14.6). Einen kurzen Exkurs mache ich, wenn ich mich den Experimenten mit PL-Internationalismen zuwende, die deutschen Lesern präsentiert wurden (14.7). KAPITEL VI erörtert die Methoden und Ergebnisse von Lückentexten mit hochgradig vorhersehbaren Zielwörtern im Satzkontext (Abschnitt 15) und Zufallskontext mit Sätzen aus den kooperativen Übersetzungsexperimenten (Abschnitt 16). Eine abschließende Synthese der Ergebnisse und ein Ausblick finden sich in KAPITEL VII
Implicit indefinite objects at the syntax-semantics-pragmatics interface: a probabilistic model of acceptability judgments
Optionally transitive verbs, whose Patient participant is semantically obligatory but
syntactically optional (e.g., to eat, to drink, to write), deviate from the transitive prototype
defined by Hopper and Thompson (1980). Following Fillmore (1986), unexpressed objects
may be either indefinite (referring to prototypical Patients of a verb, whose actual entity
is unknown or irrelevant) or definite (with a referent available in the immediate intra- or
extra-linguistic context). This thesis centered on indefinite null objects, which the literature
argues to be a gradient, non-categorical phenomenon possible with virtually any transitive
verb (in different degrees depending on the verb semantics), favored or hindered by several
semantic, aspectual, pragmatic, and discourse factors. In particular, the probabilistic
model of the grammaticality of indefinite null objects hereby discussed takes into account
a continuous factor (semantic selectivity, as a proxy to object recoverability) and four
binary factors (telicity, perfectivity, iterativity, and manner specification).
This work was inspired by Medina (2007), who modeled the effect of three predictors
(semantic selectivity, telicity, and perfectivity) on the grammaticality of indefinite null
objects (as gauged via Likert-scale acceptability judgments elicited from native speakers
of English) within the framework of Stochastic Optimality Theory. In her variant of the
framework, the constraints get floating rankings based on the input verb’s semantic
selectivity, which she modeled via the Selectional Preference Strength measure by Resnik
(1993, 1996). I expanded Medina’s model by modeling implicit indefinite objects in two
languages (English and Italian), by using three different measures of semantic selectivity
(Resnik’s SPS; Behavioral PISA, inspired by Medina’s Object Similarity measure; and
Computational PISA, a novel similarity-based measure by Cappelli and Lenci (2020)
based on distributional semantics), and by adding iterativity and manner specification as
new predictors in the model.
Both the English and the Italian five-predictor models based on Behavioral PISA explain
almost half of the variance in the data, improving on the Medina-like three-predictor
models based on Resnik’s SPS. Moreover, they have a comparable range of predicted
object-dropping probabilities (30-100% in English, 30-90% in Italian), and the predictors
perform consistently with theoretical literature on object drop. Indeed, in both models,
atelic imperfective iterative manner-specified inputs are the most likely to drop their
object (between 80% and 90%), while telic perfective non-iterative manner-unspecified
inputs are the least likely (between 30% and 40%). The constraint re-ranking probabilities
are always directly proportional to semantic selectivity, with the exception of Telic End
in Italian. Both models show a main effect of telicity, but the second most relevant factor
in the model is perfectivity in English and manner specification in Italian
Evaluation model of privacy policy information transparency
Cilj ove disertacije je izraditi model vrjednovanja informacijske transparentnosti politika privatnosti temeljen na polazišnoj pretpostavci da učinkoviti mehanizmi transparentnosti trebaju težiti smanjivanju informacijske asimetrije između organizacija koje prikupljaju i obrađuju podatke ispitanika te samih ispitanika. U tu svrhu postavljena je analitička matrica kojom se analizom sadržaja tekstova politika privatnosti ispitivala ispunjenost definiranih zahtjeva na teorijski definiranim dimenzijama informacijske transparentnosti, teorijski uvjetno nazvanima vidljivost i inferabilnost, kao operacionaliziranim jedinicama mjerenja određenih stupnjeva informacijske simetrije kao pokazatelja informacijske transparentnosti u međusobnoj korelaciji. Svaka od dimenzija je, nadalje, operacionalizirana je preko određenog broja indikatora i pod-indikatora kao pretpostavljenih zahtjeva koje bi politika privatnosti trebala ispuniti, odnosno zadovoljiti pri postizanju informacijske simetrije prema ispitanicima. Stoga su i zahtjevima dodijeljeni odgovarajući ponderi prema teorijski pretpostavljenoj važnosti pojedinog pod-indikatora u definiranju indikatora, a čija suma iznosi najviše 1 kao „mjera“ ispunjenosti zahtjeva u potpunosti. Primjenom faktorske analize nad prikupljenim podacima, na uzorku od 152 zdravstvene ustanove u javnom i privatnom sektoru na području Republike Hrvatske, izrađen je i validan konceptualni model kojim se prikazuju utjecaji pojedinih faktora na informacijsku transparentnost, odnosno smanjenje informacijske asimetrije između navedenih dionika, prilikom čega su izdvojeni i rezultati drugih statističkih analiza nad uzorkom. Modelom vrjednovanja informacijske transparentnosti na učinkovitost mehanizama transparentnosti u većoj mjeri utječu faktori vidljivosti, definirani odrednicama slojevitosti, ažuriranosti i informativnosti, u odnosu na faktore inferabilnosti, definirane kroz odrednice pristupačnosti, smislenosti i razumljivosti politika privatnosti. I iako međusobno ne koreliraju, definirane faktore moguće je iskoristiti za određivanje stupnja informacijske asimetrije politika privatnosti s ciljem njenog smanjenja korištenjem rezultata analize valjanosti podudaranja provedene tijekom validacije modela. Prilagodbom pojedinih odrednica na temelju dobivenih vrijednosti odstupanja od referentnih vrijednosti na temelju prosjeka ispitanih ustanova, ostvarivo je upravljanje učinkovitošću mehanizmima informacijske transparentnosti.In today's information abundance, information transparency is becoming an integral part of human rights and freedom in digital environments. The rights of the individuals to make their own choice are becoming stronger in the field of privacy protection, and with overall digital transformation, they are increasingly focused on the protection of personal data collected and processed about data subjects. In the environment of modern liberal-based social systems, individuals are placed in a role of mature and free data subjects, with extensive rights to know what data is collected and processed so that they can determine what information they want to share with whom. Also, they have a right to withdraw from undesirable and optional data processing or request the deletion or anonymization of their personal data. These rights to transparency and intervention are described by the term "user-oriented privacy", a concept whose basic idea is that respondents make informed decisions about disclosing personal data, as disclosing their personal data can change the distribution of power in relationships and create damages and risks to them. But for individuals to be able to make informed decisions and have control over their privacy, mechanisms need to be provided to ensure these rights. Therefore, the aim of transparency is to reduce the existing high information asymmetry between data controllers and data subjects, as subsequent cannot always determine what data is collected about them, to what extent and for what purpose. And in order to meet the requirements of the principles of data protection and privacy, transparency should be meaningful and meet the requirements in relation to the possibility of intervenability as a goal of privacy. In doing so, mechanisms for achieving intervenability should provide respondents with clear, prominent, easily understandable, accessible tools for consuming the right to choose in relation to the processing of their personal data, as well the rights to interrupt the processing of certain data, delete data, correct them and other related rights. In the disciplines of information management, business and information ethics, the term transparency is usually used for forms of information visibility and access to information, intentions or behaviours that are thus intentionally revealed, representing a form of communication that transmits signals between processors data and individuals, and in order to achieve the effectiveness of the tool, i.e. increase transparency, it is necessary to eliminate or minimize any "noise" as a disruptive factor in the communication process. In the context of Shannon-Weaver's mathematical model of the communication system, two essentially diverse ways of transmitting messages are distinguished: via discrete signals and via continuous signals. Discrete signals can represent only a finite number of different, recognizable states, while for continuous signals the amounts of signals can vary in an infinite set of values. In this reference framework and the broader thematic framework of privacy assurance, the former can correspond to ex-ante, tools which provide the necessary information to the data subjects before collecting and processing data, and the latter as ex-post transparency tools that provide the necessary information to the data subjects after data collection and processing. In the described context of transparency tools and technologies, privacy policy is set as an ex-ante tool for raising awareness of respondents, but also as a tool of data controller declarations, serving as the basis for user conscious decisions regarding the protection of personal data. It is a document, a set of data within limited letters, perceived as a discrete communication system, with the aim of informing data subjects with the procedures of the system or organization regarding the collection, sharing, use and storage of their personal data, showing the entire life cycle of personal data within some organization. Today, reporting on data collection and processing practices is an important aspect of data protection frameworks and regulations, such as the General Regulation on Personal Data Protection in European Union, and the effectiveness of this mechanism is an important aspect in examining information transparency. So, in order to achieve a state of information symmetry, effective transparency tools need to meet certain requirements on both dimensions of transparency. The dimension of visibility, focused on the content determinant of transparency, which reflects the degree of completeness of information and the possibility of finding it, and the dimension of inferability, characterized by qualitative characteristics of the mechanism of transparency, reflecting the degree to which information can be used to make the right decisions. The purpose of the research is to develop a model for calculating the levels of information transparency of privacy policies in deviations towards achieving optimal transparency results, i.e. information symmetry, as a basis for improving the effectiveness of transparency mechanisms. The specific goal of the research is to identify factors of dimensions of information transparency, their mutual relationship and intensity of connections as constructs within designed model of privacy policy evaluation. Based on the theoretical study, the relevant factors are determined on the dimension of visibility: 1) informativeness, 2) currentness and 3) accessibility of the text. The dimension of inferability is determined by: 1) layering, 2) conciseness and 3) understandability of the content. With proposed research the following hypotheses were tested: H1) The degree of information asymmetry can be determined using the degrees of visibility and infectivity factors; H2) The degree of information asymmetry is significantly influenced by visibility factors compared to infectivity factors and H3) By applying the designed model, it is possible to assess the information transparency of privacy policies. The study is dominated by a primarily quantitative approach to content analysis of privacy policies. The research was conducted on the documents of 152 health care institutions, of which 56 institutions are in the public health care system, while the remaining institutions are health care institutions in private sector. The reason for this is that many public health care institutions during the research in April and May 2021. did not have available privacy policies on their respected websites. That is, out of 148 health care institutions in the public health care system declared on the website of the Ministry of Health, only 37% had published their privacy policies with a unified content identifier (URI) as a set condition for sample selection. After the design of an analytical matrix and coding sheet, during the data collection, first the number of interactions required to access privacy policies as a basis for calculating the accessibility requirement coefficient and determining whether the content layering requirement was recorded (through subheadings of certain document sections or other hypertext formatting options). In the next step, the text of the document was copied and pasted into a blank Word application document in which a unit of further analysis was set up: titles were removed, e-mail addresses and hyperlinks were replaced with X not to affect results of syllable count. Furthermore, through the Wordcount option, the number of words and the number of characters (without spaces) were recorded, while the number of sentences was counted "manually" by the author, professor of Croatian language and literature. The text was then copied into the computer tool syllablecounter.org, which was selected as the most reliable for calculating the number of records after comparing the results of manual counting and by comparing different computer programs for counting records in the text. Furthermore, to help analyse the number of lexical words, the text is then copied to the text analysis tool on online-utility.org website to single out occurrences in relation to their frequency of occurrences in the text. In the next steps, the content analysis method was used to examine the fulfilment of informativeness requirements through the presence of criteria defined in the analytical matrix, then currentness, in relation to the date of publication or update of the document and information on how to inform respondents about changes in privacy policies in this document. Furthermore, based on the obtained results of the number of syllables, words and sentences, using the Flesch Reading Ease (FRE) formula for readability, the indices of text understandability were calculated, and by using The Flesch-Kincaid grade level formula the level of education of the respondents for understanding the privacy notice were determined in reference to the of 2011 census results in Croatia. Furthermore, the number of lexemes was put in proportion to the total number of words as the lexical density is set as a reference for conciseness requirement testing. The analysis was performed in the computer program Excel using custom formulas of for the Croatian language. In the absence of similar analytical matrices for measuring transparency policies, the design and content validation of the analytical matrix was carried out during the research. Firstly, as all determinants of transparency dimensions were directly operationalized, i.e. each of them was measured through only one indicator, with a different number of subindicators, while the determinant of informativeness was measured through a total of 14 indicators, in order to determine the consistency of the selected 14 indicators as a reliable instrument for measuring the determinant of informativeness, a reliability analysis (Cronbach's alpha reliability coefficient) was performed on data collected from a sample of public institutions and institutions in private sector as well. Both results indicate a very good reliability. Then the results of visibility and inferability dimensions obtained at 56 public health institutions were compared with those obtained at 96 private public institutions throughout t-test methods, showing that data collected is consistent. Based on the obtained research results, a conceptual model of evaluating information transparency was developed in relation to the defined dimensions of information transparency at the first level, and then in relation to the obtained factor saturations of individual determinants at each of the dimensions at the second level. In reference to results, determinants were set to reflect different distribution, as determinants of accessibility and layering substituted. Although the analysis of the collected results showed that the two dimensions, visibility and inferability are not correlated, that is the correlation between these two latent variables is close to zero, contrary to the theoretical assumption, both dimensions can be treated as separate variables or constructs. As results of performed two-factor analysis, the values of each dimension contribution in explaining the variance were calculated that can be used as a basis for model development. In absolute terms, the "share" of the visibility dimension is 32.04%, and inferability is 19.34%, which together makes 51.38% of the variance explained by the set two-factor model. That is, in relative terms, if the explained variance is set as 100%, then its visibility contributes 62.36%, and inferability 37.64% to the information transparency results. From the obtained results of calculated factor scores each determinant can be put in relation to determined transparency dimension, assessing its impact to information transparency. Results have shown that informativeness requirements have the greatest impact on the results in the visibility dimension, which is expected, since this indicator only consists of the most sub-indicators (14 of them) compared to other indicators. Furthermore, to a lesser extent, the results in the dimension are affected by the requirements for layering of the text, while the least affected they are by the currentness requirements, i.e. the publication of dates and ways of informing respondents when changing privacy policies. On the dimension of inferability, the results of information transparency are mostly influenced by the requirement of conciseness as the results of lexical density, and then the requirement of accessibility, reflected in the number of interactions to the text of the privacy policy and finally understandability an indicator of the quality and appropriateness of the language in which the information is provided in relation to the target group. However, since the results presented by the conceptual model in their interrelation represent the impact of individual determinants and dimensions of transparency on the overall result of information transparency of individual institutions, they can be directed towards examining privacy policies transparency depending on their impact on the overall result of information (a)symmetry. Therefore, the result of information (a)symmetry as a dependent variable in relation to the analysis of variances of set factor scores on both dimensions of transparency can be examined in order to test auxiliary hypotheses obtained by the set model. By conducting a Goodness-of-Fit analysis in relation to the reference results of the average results on both dimensions it was possible to determine deviations from the results in relation to changes in individual variations of factor scores over the collected data to validate model. In relation to the obtained average of all institutions in the visibility dimension, which is 0.39, the greatest influence on the results of information transparency has the determinant of layering, followed by currentness and, finally, informativeness. Furthermore, on the dimension of inferability in relation to the obtained average of all institutions, which is 0.29, from the obtained results it is possible to conclude that the determinant of understandability does indeed have the least influence on the results of information transparency. It is also possible to conclude that the determinant of accessibility has the greatest impact on the information transparency of the dimension in question. In relation to the calculated reference average of all institutions on the inferability dimension, 46 institutions have achieved above-average results were singled out, while 76 of them on the visibility dimension, which corresponds to the statement that determinants on the visibility dimension to a greater extent contribute to reducing information asymmetry. Regarding the tested hypothesis, it is concluded that H1 is confirmed as the degree of information asymmetry can be determined using the degrees of visibility and inferability factors; by interpreting the results when conducting factor analysis over the dimensions of visibility and inferability explained variance over the investigated sample H2 is also confirmed, as the degree of information asymmetry is significantly influenced by visibility factors compared to inferability factors; while H3 is rejected, giving the diverse results within set model and its validation and by applying the designed model, it is not possible to assess the information transparency of privacy policies. The obtained results, although, in their mutual relationship represent a kind of ordinal scale which shows the impact of individual determinants and dimensions of transparency on the overall result of information transparency of an individual institution. Since this result is taken as a measure of the effectiveness of the transparency mechanism, the results can be directed towards examining privacy policies in relation to the requirements met on individual determinants of transparency dimensions, depending on their impact on the overall information symmetry score. Therefore, the research results can serve as a basis for the development of guidelines for ensuring effective transparency tools, but also for the development of algorithms for a multi-criteria simulation model based on modern technologies. Furthermore, this research should significantly contribute to the current literature in the field of requirements engineering, integrating the concept of information (a)symmetry as an element of evaluating the performance of information transparency mechanisms
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