All at sea? A critical appraisal of the C4 framework for the management of major maritime emergencies (MME)

This study is the result of nearly four decades of professional practice in the maritime industry and, in particular, dealing with shipping emergencies, including many high profile accidents and several hundred lesser, but potentially life-threatening, emergencies. The study uses this knowledge and experience as a basis for undertaking a critical evaluation of the Command, Control, Communication and Coordination (C4) framework that is typically used in dealing with such emergencies. It begins with a brief history and background to the C4 framework in the context of a major maritime emergency (MME). The components of the framework are defined and an exemplar activity map used to describe the framework in detail and the relationship between its components and external influences. A preliminary evaluation of the C4 framework suggested that while it is largely robust in principle, there is considerable evidence to suggest that its utility in the handling of live emergencies is frequently undermined in practice. This finding led to a second phase of evaluation, which attempted to identify optimal operational principles that can contribute to a more effective implementation of the C4 framework in major maritime emergencies. Six command principles (P1-P6) plus one sub-principle (P1a) developed from the author’s career are described and used as a basis upon which to build additional principles. To determine these additional principles, seven case studies based on experience and professional practice, are examined to identify key statements and observations of Favourable (F) and Unfavourable (U) practice. Evaluation and analysis of the key statements and observations led to thirty additional C4 framework principles. A short cross-sectional (latitudinal) survey was also conducted of emergency service professionals to support the professional practice and the principles derived from the case studies. Given the time constraints of this study and the difficulty in maintaining responses over time from all 395 respondents, a longitudinal survey was ruled out. Analysis of the survey led to a further three principles that included qualities required of a commander, and the selection of potential recruits to emergency response organisations, in particular command positions. The six original principles of command (plus one sub-principle) are matched with extant cognitive decision making studies, together with a limited review of the psychology of decision making outside of the maritime context using real life examples, and evaluated for commonality or otherwise of biases and thinking approach. From these appraisals a further 5 principles were identified. In all, a comprehensive list of 46 C4 framework principles is produced that covers command in terms of people (command, skills and knowledge), Process (Design), Resources (Design), Organisation (Design). The 46 principles are classified under 3 headings: Capability, Readiness, Response, producing 26 consolidated principles under 10 sub-headings. The list is further refined to produce three distinct tables of principles in an operational format that can be used by any emergency response organisation. The study, which is based on practical experience and professional practice supported by academic research, concludes that the implementation of the C4 framework for the management of an MME can be significantly flawed, and would benefit from the adoption of many of the principles derived from the author’s own experiences and also from complementary sources. The study also supports the contention that it is the human element in the implementation of the C4 framework that could be improved and that the framework itself is largely fit for purpose. The refined principles derived require actions to be undertaken, some more extensive than others, by commanders, trainers, recruiters and managers before they can be effective. To aid this approach, the principles are marshalled into three key groups, as commonly used by emergency services, as described above. The key groups can be used to aid the formation of simulated exercises for training purposes and for organisational design. In summary, the principles identified provide a foundation for improving the implementation of the C4 framework for the management of MMEs, and for emergencies across all other fields and in many other contexts

A Real Time Web Based Electronic Triage, Resource Allocation and Hospital Dispatch System for Emergency Response

Disasters are characterized by large numbers of victims and required resources, overwhelming the available resources. Disaster response involves various entities like Incident Commanders, dispatch centers, emergency operations centers, area command and hospitals. An effective emergency response system should facilitate coordination between these various entities. Victim triage, emergency resource allocation and victim dispatch to hospitals form an important part of an emergency response system. In this present research effort, an emergency response system with the aforementioned components is developed. Triage is the process of prioritizing mass casualty victims based on severity of injuries. The system presented in this thesis is a low-cost victim triage system with RFID tags that aggregate all victim information within a database. It will allow first responders\u27 movements to be tracked using GPS. A web-based real time resource allocation tool that can assist the Incident Commanders in resource allocation and transportation for multiple simultaneous incidents has been developed. This tool ensures that high priority resources at emergency sites are received in least possible time. This web-based tool also computes the patient dispatch schedule from each disaster site to each hospital. Patients are allocated to nearest hospitals with available medical facilities. This tool can also assist resource managers in emergency resource planning by computing the time taken to receive required resources from the nearest depots using Google Maps. These web-based tools complements emergency response systems by providing decision-making capabilities

Managerial Roles and Structuring Mechanisms within Arctic Maritime Emergency Response

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Measuring Skill Decay in Fire Ground Commanders

Despite improved technology and equipment and a steady decline of structure fires, firefighter line-of-duty deaths and injury rates have increased over the past 10 years. Independent reports indicated poor decision-making by fire ground incident commanders (FGCs) as the primary cause of deaths and injuries. FGCs are vulnerable to skill decay given the expertise needed to manage an incident and limited opportunities to remain proficient. Guided by skill decay theory, the purpose of this quantitative study was to examine the relationship between skill decay among FGCs and experience, drilling and training opportunities (overlearning), years of experience, and time since initial training. A web-based survey was used to collect data from a convenience sample of 376 certified fire department officers. Findings from multiple linear regression analysis indicated that time since initial training in a fire command training program was significantly related to skill retention among FGCs (p = .008). Experience, drilling and training opportunities (overlearning), and years of experience in the fire service were not significantly related to skill retention. Findings may be used to strengthen fire service policies and reduce loss of life and property damage in the fire service and communities

Wireless sensor data processing for on-site emergency response

This thesis is concerned with the problem of processing data from Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) to meet the requirements of emergency responders (e.g. Fire and Rescue Services). A WSN typically consists of spatially distributed sensor nodes to cooperatively monitor the physical or environmental conditions. Sensor data about the physical or environmental conditions can then be used as part of the input to predict, detect, and monitor emergencies. Although WSNs have demonstrated their great potential in facilitating Emergency Response, sensor data cannot be interpreted directly due to its large volume, noise, and redundancy. In addition, emergency responders are not interested in raw data, they are interested in the meaning it conveys. This thesis presents research on processing and combining data from multiple types of sensors, and combining sensor data with other relevant data, for the purpose of obtaining data of greater quality and information of greater relevance to emergency responders. The current theory and practice in Emergency Response and the existing technology aids were reviewed to identify the requirements from both application and technology perspectives (Chapter 2). The detailed process of information extraction from sensor data and sensor data fusion techniques were reviewed to identify what constitutes suitable sensor data fusion techniques and challenges presented in sensor data processing (Chapter 3). A study of Incident Commanders’ requirements utilised a goal-driven task analysis method to identify gaps in current means of obtaining relevant information during response to fire emergencies and a list of opportunities for WSN technology to fill those gaps (Chapter 4). A high-level Emergency Information Management System Architecture was proposed, including the main components that are needed, the interaction between components, and system function specification at different incident stages (Chapter 5). A set of state-awareness rules was proposed, and integrated with Kalman Filter to improve the performance of filtering. The proposed data pre-processing approach achieved both improved outlier removal and quick detection of real events (Chapter 6). A data storage mechanism was proposed to support timely response to queries regardless of the increase in volume of data (Chapter 7). What can be considered as “meaning” (e.g. events) for emergency responders were identified and a generic emergency event detection model was proposed to identify patterns presenting in sensor data and associate patterns with events (Chapter 8). In conclusion, the added benefits that the technical work can provide to the current Emergency Response is discussed and specific contributions and future work are highlighted (Chapter 9)

Beyond Katrina: Improving Disaster Response Capabilities

As Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma successively lashed the Gulf Coast starting in late August 2005, nature’s fury exposed serious weaknesses in the United States’s emergency response capabilities. These problems were not simply the failure of particular places or leaders to be ready for disaster but rather an indication of more fundamental issues. These must be addressed if the country is to be ready for serious challenges that may lay ahead, whether severe natural disasters, outbreaks of emergent infectious disease, or renewed terrorist attacks

The Role of Transportation in Campus Emergency Planning, MTI Report 08-06

In 2005, Hurricane Katrina created the greatest natural disaster in American history. The states of Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama sustained significant damage, including 31 colleges and universities. Other institutions of higher education, most notably Louisiana State University (LSU), became resources to the disaster area. This is just one of the many examples of disaster impacts on institutions of higher education. The Federal Department of Homeland Security, under Homeland Security Presidential Directive–5, requires all public agencies that want to receive federal preparedness assistance to comply with the National Incident Management System (NIMS), which includes the creation of an Emergency Operations Plan (EOP). Universities, which may be victims or resources during disasters, must write NIMS–compliant emergency plans. While most university emergency plans address public safety and logistics management, few adequately address the transportation aspects of disaster response and recovery. This MTI report describes the value of integrating transportation infrastructure into the campus emergency plan, including planning for helicopter operations. It offers a list of materials that can be used to educate and inform campus leadership on campus emergency impacts, including books about the Katrina response by LSU and Tulane Hospital, contained in the report´s bibliography. It provides a complete set of Emergency Operations Plan checklists and organization charts updated to acknowledge lessons learned from Katrina, 9/11 and other wide–scale emergencies. Campus emergency planners can quickly update their existing emergency management documents by integrating selected annexes and elements, or create new NIMS–compliant plans by adapting the complete set of annexes to their university´s structures

Organizing emergency response in the European Arctic : a comparative study of Norway, Russia, Iceland and Greenland : MARPART Project Report 5

The report examines the emergency preparedness systems in Norway, Russia, and Iceland in the Fields of Search and rescue (SAR), oil spill response, firefighting and violent action at sea. Within each country and each Field, the report introduces the main maritime emergency preparedness and response institutions With their organizational models, responsibilities and main operational patterns

DECISIONS IN THE DARK: A FRAMEWORK FOR DECISION-MAKING IN UNFAMILIAR SITUATIONS

This thesis seeks to understand an appropriate decision-making framework for the fire service to use in unfamiliar situations. Firefighters and emergency responders rely on pattern recognition when they are presented with familiar situations; however, relying on such intuition can result in costly time delays. A case study method was used to evaluate decision-making during disasters in the fire service and the mining industry. The fire service cases include the 1949 Mann Gulch Fire and the fire service response to the 9/11 attack on the World Trade Center. The mining case studies, both of which occurred in 2010, include the Deepwater Horizon oil spill and the Chilean mine collapse. The fire service cases were assessed to determine which decision-making tools were utilized and what additional factors influenced positive and negative outcomes throughout the events. The mining cases were evaluated to understand organizational structures and response systems. This thesis recommends that fire service leaders utilize expanded interdisciplinary teams to creatively seek alternative solutions when addressing unfamiliar problems. Using such teams will require leaders to expand response frameworks and alter familiar patterns of response to include outside agencies and nontraditional emergency responders. Finally, leaders should deliberately encourage open communication about successes and failures to encourage collaboration and innovation throughout the response.Civilian, Portland Fire and RescueApproved for public release. Distribution is unlimited