Summary report on sensory-related socio-economic and sensory science literature about organic food products

Organic food’s initial attraction to the public was that it was perceived to be healthier and tastier, but scientists and policy makers have mainly stressed the benefits to the environment of organic and sustainable farming. Scientific support for marketing actions addressed to those who want to be healthier and who want to enjoy better taste, and are willing to pay more for these benefits is scarce. Past research has produced little clear evidence about the importance of sensory characteristics such as taste, smell, appearance etc in consumers’ preferences with regard to organic food. The Ecropolis project, funded by the E.U., was set up with the aim of investigating the role of the senses in consumers’ preferences regarding organic food, and leading to research into how best to satisfy those preferences. This deliverable is aimed at providing a solid basis for such research with an in-depth review of, and two reports on, the relevant scientific literature. The first report (Annex I) regards what consumers expect from organic products in terms of taste, smell, appearance, etc and how these expectations are (or are not) met; the second is about the science of the senses (Annex II). The first project tasks included creating and agreeing on a glossary of terms, deciding on search criteria (key words, etc.), setting up a bibliographical data base, preparing then circulating the above-mentioned reports, and finally preparing a summary of the reports. The report on consumers expectations highlights the suggestion that while organic food has traditionally been marketed through specialized retailers, its market share will only grow significantly if it is promoted by multiple retailers. Research literature from all over the world seems to agree in indicating that consumers’ choices are largely motivated by health, the environment, price and social status. Other considerations include ethics, the localness of the product and lifestyle choices. The literature also indicates that the organic market will expand significantly only if consumers are more willing, and able, to recognize quality, but this presents serious issues. When buying the product they cannot personally verify its quality and genuineness and thus must rely on regulation and inspection bodies. The recognition of quality can also be encouraged by effective communication by producers and retailers through appropriate branding, labelling and presentation. There are connections between this information and questions of sense perception, but researchers disagree about how important the latter is in influencing the customer, and in which ways it does so. The following report focuses, in fact, on the science of the senses, which tries to analyze in detail people’s responses to food, despite the many potential pitfalls in carrying out the research which might influence the reliability of the results. There is broad agreement on two points: - there is no proof that organic food is more nutritious or safer, and - most studies that have compared the taste and organoleptic quality of organic andconventional foods report no consistent or significant differences between organic and conventional produce. Therefore, claiming that all organic food tastes different from all conventional food would not be correct. However, among the well-designed studies with respect to fruits and vegetables that have found differences, the vast majority favour organic produce. Organic produce tends to store better and has longer shelf life, probably because of lower levels of nitrates and higher average levels of antioxidants. The former can accelerate food spoilage, while antioxidants help preserve the integrity of cells and some are natural antibiotics. The first conclusion may, however, depend on factors not directly connected to organic farming, such as harvesting and storage methods and the type of land used for growing the food. About the second finding it must be considered that measuring organoleptic quality is difficult and inherently subjective and evaluations may be clouded by the influence of numerous factors on the consumer’s perceptions of the food and not just its appearance and taste. Experimental research indicates that the information that a food is organic confers upon it a “halo effect” (making it seem better sense-wise simply because it is organic) which might make consumers like it more. Ecropolis researchers will analyze in detail which senses are indeed impacted on, and how, and try to match them to consumer needs and expectations in order to be able to offer suggestions for future policy, including how the food is stored, transported and presented, which is also essential for maintaining sensory properties. The workpackage WP1 has also produced a specific report on how organic food sensory aspects are regulated. International standards, with some important exceptions, are largely in line with European ones. Differences in standards usually regard whether there is orientation towards freshness “per se” as opposed to increasing shelf-life, or quality standardization as opposed to quality differentiation. Differences in regulations regard such aspects as ingredients, additives, processing aids and methods, packaging, storage and transport. The lack of harmony among the different regulatory systems often reflects different traditions and market conditions, however, more complicated compliance procedures result in higher costs for importers. Greater homogeneity would not only reduce such costs but would also increase consumer confidence in international standards. Ecropolis will also investigate the effect of different regulations on how people perceive organic goods sense-wise. The work done to date is seen as a starting point for future research aimed at producing practical results in the organic food market. Ecropolis will try to bring together separate strands of research concerning how organic goods are regulated and marketed with regard to taste, appearance, etc., and how consumers themselves are affected by such factors. The aim is to find optimal matches between the two, and thus to greatly increase organic food’s share of the food market

Consumer preferences for organic food: behavior building-up, importance of pricing, information and sensory issues

The aim of this thesis is to investigate Spanish consumers purchase motivations and behavior towards organic food by means of determining the key factors that take part on building their behavior. An important contribution of this work consists on providing more evidence on consumers’ underlying motivations to buy organic food for the particular case of Spain and to test the role of sensory “experience” in defining individual new WTP for a post purchasing situation. This thesis investigates the role of personal, economic and social elements in predicting Spain consumers’ attitudes and purchase intentions toward organic food. It place together all the relevant variables identified by previous studies developing a new and complex behavioral model on consumers’ organic decision making process. The new conceptual model is developed and tested via structural equation modeling. Results show that attitudes, knowledge, as well as environmental and health concern partially mediates the effects of trust in market agents and risk perceptions on attitudes toward organic food. Furthermore, price and subjective norms have been detected to explain organic food purchase intention. Next, this thesis analyzes the factors affecting consumer’s willingness to pay (WTP) for organic food. In this context, the most widely used valuation methods have been Conjoint Analysis and Choice Experiments. However, discrete choice and conjoint data do not offer immediate financial consequences for the participants. As a consequence, consumers tend to overestimate their real WTP. For that reason, this thesis investigates approaches to incorporate incentives into the traditional conjoint and choice methodologies. In this research, we analyze the “Calibrated Auction-Conjoint Valuation method” (CACM), by comparing Non-adjusted values from a self-explicated conjoint method to the final calibrated values entered using a non-hypothetical auction in a context well suited to the CACM: preferences for sustainable farming. We noticed that consumers significantly reduced their WTP when moving from the initial stage of the CACM to the final stage, primarily by placing less importance on product prices, implying that WTP values from a self-explicated conjoint method used alone would likely lead to overstated estimates of WTP. Finally, consumers’ willingness to pay and sensory “experience” is assessed through an experimental auction. Two auctions have been designed: the first consists on consumers’evaluation of different food options based on search attributes (before purchase) and the second after tasting it (simulating a post purchasing situation). In between a hedonic sensory test is performed. Simultaneously, as a complementary exercise, a trained panel sensory test has been employed to identify the main organoleptic characteristics that consumers associate with the hedonic taste satisfaction. Finally, factors affecting consumers’ WTP differences in the two auctions are analyzed. We have detected that the Spanish consumers have a positive attitude towards sustainable food due to environmental concerns, health concerns, and trust in certification and market agents. However, the premium they are willing to pay for these products is lower than the current market price. Furthermore, both “search” and sensory “experience” do influence consumers’ purchase behavior.El objetivo de esta tesis es investigar las motivaciones de compra de los consumidores españoles y el comportamiento hacia los alimentos ecológicos por medio de la determinación de factores clave que intervienen en la construcción de su comportamiento. Una contribución importante consiste en proporcionar más evidencia a la ya existente en España sobre las motivaciones subyacentes de los consumidores para comprar alimentos ecológicos, así como determinar el rol de la experiencia sensorial en la generación de las nuevas disposiciones a pagar una vez comprado el producto. En esta tesis se investiga el papel de elementos personales, económicos y sociales en la predicción de las actitudes e intenciones de compra hacia los alimentos ecológicos de los consumidores de España. Se sitúan todas las variables identificadas en estudios previos desarrollando un complejo modelo del comportamiento de los consumidores de alimentos ecológicos en el proceso de toma decisión. Un modelo conceptual es desarrollado y probado a través de modelos de ecuaciones estructurales. Los resultados muestran que las actitudes de conocimiento, así como la preocupación del medio ambiente y la salud media parcialmente los efectos en la confianza en los agentes del mercado y las percepciones de riesgo a las actitudes hacia los alimentos ecológicos. Por último, las normas subjetivas y el precio explican la intención de compra. Además en esta tesis se analizan los factores que afectan la disposición a pagar de los consumidores alimentos ecológicos. En este contexto, los métodos de valoración más utilizados han sido el análisis conjunto y experimentos de elección. Sin embargo, la elección discreta y el conjunto de datos no ofrecen consecuencias financieras inmediatas para los participantes. Como consecuencia, los consumidores tienden a sobreestimar su verdadera disposición a pagar. Debido a lo anterior, esta tesis estudia métodos para incorporar incentivos en las metodologías tradicionales de elección y el conjunto de datos. En esta investigación se analiza el “Calibrated Auction-Conjoint Valuation Method” (CACM), mediante la comparación de los valores no ajustados a partir de un método conjunto auto-explicado a los valores finales calibrados participando en una subasta hipotética, en un contexto muy adecuado para el CACM: las preferencias para la agricultura sostenible. Hemos encontrado que los consumidores redujeron significativamente su disposición a pagar cuando se pasa de la etapa inicial del CACM a la etapa final, principalmente mediante la asignación de menor importancia en los precios de los productos, lo que implica que los valores de la disposición a pagar de utilizando solamente un método de auto-explicado conjunto podría llevar a estimaciones exageradas de la disposición a pagar. Por último, la disposición a pagar de los consumidores se determina mediante una subasta experimental. Dos subastas se han diseñado: la primera consiste en la evaluación de los consumidores de las opciones de diferentes alimentos en función de atributos de búsqueda (antes de la compra) y el segundo después de probarlo (simulando una situación postcompra). Entre las dos apuestas se lleva a cabo una prueba sensorial hedónica. Al mismo tiempo, como un ejercicio complementario, una prueba sensorial con un panel entrenado se realizó para identificar las principales características organolépticas que los consumidores asocian con la satisfacción hedónica del gusto. Finalmente, para determinar los factores que afectan las diferencias en la disponibilidad a pagar de los consumidores se analizan dos subastas. Se encontró que los consumidores españoles tienen una actitud positiva hacia la comida producida de manera sostenible debido a las preocupaciones ambientales, problemas de salud, y la confianza en la certificación y los agentes del mercado. Sin embargo, la prima que están dispuesto a pagar por estos productos es menor que el precio del mercado actual. Por otra parte, existe una la influencia clara de los atributos intrínsecos del producto (tipo de producción, etc), y la “experiencia” sensorial en el comportamiento de compra del consumidor.Postprint (published version

Consumer preferences for organic food: behavior building-up, importance of pricing, information and sensory issues

The aim of this thesis is to investigate Spanish consumers purchase motivations and behavior towards organic food by means of determining the key factors that take part on building their behavior. An important contribution of this work consists on providing more evidence on consumers’ underlying motivations to buy organic food for the particular case of Spain and to test the role of sensory “experience” in defining individual new WTP for a post purchasing situation. This thesis investigates the role of personal, economic and social elements in predicting Spain consumers’ attitudes and purchase intentions toward organic food. It place together all the relevant variables identified by previous studies developing a new and complex behavioral model on consumers’ organic decision making process. The new conceptual model is developed and tested via structural equation modeling. Results show that attitudes, knowledge, as well as environmental and health concern partially mediates the effects of trust in market agents and risk perceptions on attitudes toward organic food. Furthermore, price and subjective norms have been detected to explain organic food purchase intention. Next, this thesis analyzes the factors affecting consumer’s willingness to pay (WTP) for organic food. In this context, the most widely used valuation methods have been Conjoint Analysis and Choice Experiments. However, discrete choice and conjoint data do not offer immediate financial consequences for the participants. As a consequence, consumers tend to overestimate their real WTP. For that reason, this thesis investigates approaches to incorporate incentives into the traditional conjoint and choice methodologies. In this research, we analyze the “Calibrated Auction-Conjoint Valuation method” (CACM), by comparing Non-adjusted values from a self-explicated conjoint method to the final calibrated values entered using a non-hypothetical auction in a context well suited to the CACM: preferences for sustainable farming. We noticed that consumers significantly reduced their WTP when moving from the initial stage of the CACM to the final stage, primarily by placing less importance on product prices, implying that WTP values from a self-explicated conjoint method used alone would likely lead to overstated estimates of WTP. Finally, consumers’ willingness to pay and sensory “experience” is assessed through an experimental auction. Two auctions have been designed: the first consists on consumers’evaluation of different food options based on search attributes (before purchase) and the second after tasting it (simulating a post purchasing situation). In between a hedonic sensory test is performed. Simultaneously, as a complementary exercise, a trained panel sensory test has been employed to identify the main organoleptic characteristics that consumers associate with the hedonic taste satisfaction. Finally, factors affecting consumers’ WTP differences in the two auctions are analyzed. We have detected that the Spanish consumers have a positive attitude towards sustainable food due to environmental concerns, health concerns, and trust in certification and market agents. However, the premium they are willing to pay for these products is lower than the current market price. Furthermore, both “search” and sensory “experience” do influence consumers’ purchase behavior.El objetivo de esta tesis es investigar las motivaciones de compra de los consumidores españoles y el comportamiento hacia los alimentos ecológicos por medio de la determinación de factores clave que intervienen en la construcción de su comportamiento. Una contribución importante consiste en proporcionar más evidencia a la ya existente en España sobre las motivaciones subyacentes de los consumidores para comprar alimentos ecológicos, así como determinar el rol de la experiencia sensorial en la generación de las nuevas disposiciones a pagar una vez comprado el producto. En esta tesis se investiga el papel de elementos personales, económicos y sociales en la predicción de las actitudes e intenciones de compra hacia los alimentos ecológicos de los consumidores de España. Se sitúan todas las variables identificadas en estudios previos desarrollando un complejo modelo del comportamiento de los consumidores de alimentos ecológicos en el proceso de toma decisión. Un modelo conceptual es desarrollado y probado a través de modelos de ecuaciones estructurales. Los resultados muestran que las actitudes de conocimiento, así como la preocupación del medio ambiente y la salud media parcialmente los efectos en la confianza en los agentes del mercado y las percepciones de riesgo a las actitudes hacia los alimentos ecológicos. Por último, las normas subjetivas y el precio explican la intención de compra. Además en esta tesis se analizan los factores que afectan la disposición a pagar de los consumidores alimentos ecológicos. En este contexto, los métodos de valoración más utilizados han sido el análisis conjunto y experimentos de elección. Sin embargo, la elección discreta y el conjunto de datos no ofrecen consecuencias financieras inmediatas para los participantes. Como consecuencia, los consumidores tienden a sobreestimar su verdadera disposición a pagar. Debido a lo anterior, esta tesis estudia métodos para incorporar incentivos en las metodologías tradicionales de elección y el conjunto de datos. En esta investigación se analiza el “Calibrated Auction-Conjoint Valuation Method” (CACM), mediante la comparación de los valores no ajustados a partir de un método conjunto auto-explicado a los valores finales calibrados participando en una subasta hipotética, en un contexto muy adecuado para el CACM: las preferencias para la agricultura sostenible. Hemos encontrado que los consumidores redujeron significativamente su disposición a pagar cuando se pasa de la etapa inicial del CACM a la etapa final, principalmente mediante la asignación de menor importancia en los precios de los productos, lo que implica que los valores de la disposición a pagar de utilizando solamente un método de auto-explicado conjunto podría llevar a estimaciones exageradas de la disposición a pagar. Por último, la disposición a pagar de los consumidores se determina mediante una subasta experimental. Dos subastas se han diseñado: la primera consiste en la evaluación de los consumidores de las opciones de diferentes alimentos en función de atributos de búsqueda (antes de la compra) y el segundo después de probarlo (simulando una situación postcompra). Entre las dos apuestas se lleva a cabo una prueba sensorial hedónica. Al mismo tiempo, como un ejercicio complementario, una prueba sensorial con un panel entrenado se realizó para identificar las principales características organolépticas que los consumidores asocian con la satisfacción hedónica del gusto. Finalmente, para determinar los factores que afectan las diferencias en la disponibilidad a pagar de los consumidores se analizan dos subastas. Se encontró que los consumidores españoles tienen una actitud positiva hacia la comida producida de manera sostenible debido a las preocupaciones ambientales, problemas de salud, y la confianza en la certificación y los agentes del mercado. Sin embargo, la prima que están dispuesto a pagar por estos productos es menor que el precio del mercado actual. Por otra parte, existe una la influencia clara de los atributos intrínsecos del producto (tipo de producción, etc), y la “experiencia” sensorial en el comportamiento de compra del consumidor

The impact of COVID-19 lockdown and consumers’ risk preference and perceptions on food purchasing and consumption behaviour in Spain

The COVID-19 pandemic is a big challenge for global food security and it changes consumers’ food purchasing and consumption behaviour. This research not only investigates Spanish consumers’ food purchasing and consumption behaviour during the lockdown but also from a point of sustainability. Data are collected from a semi-structured questionnaire which is distributed online among 1203 participants. The total food consumption (C), food expenditure (E) and purchase food with sustainable attributes (S) as three dependent variables are measured and binary logistic models are estimated. Results show that gender, age, employment status and experience are associated with total food consumption and expenditure during the lockdown. In addition, consumers’ risk perceptions, shopping places, trust level in information source and risk preference are highly important factors in consumers’ preferences and behaviour. Consumers’ objective knowledge regarding COVID-19 influences expenditure. Consumers’ trust level in information from the health professionals and scientists is higher than that from government and News. Furthermore, family structure is only related to expenditure, while the place of residence only influences food consumption. The mood is associated with expenditure and purchase food with sustainable attributes. Household size affects purchasing behaviour towards food with sustainable attributes. This research provides references for stakeholders that helps them to adapt to the new COVID19 situation.Postprint (published version

Structural equation modelling of consumer acceptance of organic food in Spain

Postprint (published version

The Economics of Health Foods and Policy Issues: Impact of Health Claims on the Demand for Foods and Population Health

Chronic disease accounts for 70% of deaths globally and causes substantial economic burdens. The largest direct healthcare costs associated with illness in Canada is due to cardiovascular disease (6.8% of total costs) followed by cancer (2.2%) and diabetes (1.3%). Research has indicated diet can significantly reduce the risk of many chronic diseases. Governments use health claims to inform consumers about foods’ health attributes and encourage healthy diets. This thesis examines the impacts of health claim policy on food demand and population health in North America. The demand for food is estimated using a linear-approximate almost ideal demand system. Population health is evaluated using a health production function. The results indicate health claims decreased unhealthy food demand between 1.4% and 6.26% and increased healthy food demand between 1.95% and 8.47%. Diet and health claim policy also positively impact population health. Policy recommendations to improve current health claim policy are provided

The characterisation of the Danish e-business - Aarstiderne as an alternative food network: A case study

The object of this case study is Aarstiderne, a Danish organic food company delivering 30,000 boxes per week. The study aims to characterise this company within the context of alternative food chains, using specific environmental, economic and social criteria. During the course of the study, 19 interviews were conducted with company members, clients, suppliers, and researchers. In addition, a life cycle analysis and a price comparison for two box types were conducted. The results of the study focus on the environmental, economic, and social impacts of the company on its stakeholders throughout the food network. These results indicate how the company can be characterised in relation to other alternative food chains, with specific attention paid to how this food chain addresses some limitations of supermarket and Community Supported Agriculture food distribution models. Lastly, a comparison of the company’s own ideals to its practices is made and some suggestions for improved coherence between ideals, practices and impacts on sustainability are put forth

Organic wine : choice and consumer value perceptions

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2022.ENGLISH SUMMARY : The purchase and consumption of organic wine are generally ascribed to altruistic motivation. However, there is a dearth of research that can comprehensively explain the value perceptions of organic wine consumers and why such consumers may move from conventional to organic wine and vice versa. This study offers a new theoretical perspective on how organic wine consumers develop and manifest their value perceptions. The study poses two research questions to achieve this objective: What dimensions of consumer value perceptions influence consumers to purchase and consume organic wine instead of conventional wine, and how do they relate to each other? Why does a segment of organic wine consumers float between organic and conventional wine? The study employs a constructivist grounded theory approach to answer these research questions and presents the findings emerging from 25 interviews with a selection of conventional and organic wine consumers in the United Kingdom. The study extends existing theory about the value perceptions of organic wine consumers. Organic wine consumers develop their perceptions of value through a process that involves an interplay between the emotions generated by organic wine and perceptions of the benefits obtained through organic wine consumption. The motivations of organic wine consumers are personal and selfish rather than altruistic. A cycle of selective information search leads to the development, and constant reinforcement, of an emotional (rather than cognitive) consumption loyalty to organic wine. However, organic wine consumers are not dogmatic in their behaviour and are flexible about the purchase and consumption of conventional wine without feeling dissonance. This flexibility offers an understanding of why organic wine consumers float between organic and conventional wine. As a result, the study proposes an alternative conceptual model of the consumers’ perceptions of the value of organic wine. The findings suggest that further research intending to offer insights into the enduring involvement of consumers with organic wine, as well as extending the applicability of the proposed conceptualisation to organic products generally, is justified. Marketers of organic wine should focus less on organic wine’s sustainability characteristics and concentrate more on the benefits provided for consumers personally.AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING : Die koop en verbruik van organiese wyn word oor die algemeen toegeskryf aan altruïstiese motiewe. Daar is egter ’n gebrek aan navorsing wat die waardepersepsies van die verbruikers van organiese wyn omvattend kan verklaar, asook hoekom sulke verbruikers moontlik sal beweeg van konvensionele na organiese wyn en omgekeerd. Hierdie studie bied ’n nuwe, teoretiese perspektief op hoe die verbruikers van organiese wyn hulle waardepersepsies ontwikkel en openbaar. Die studie vra twee navorsingsvrae om hierdie doelwit te bereik: Watter dimensies van verbruikers se waardepersepsies beïnvloed verbruikers om organiese wyn eerder as konvensionele wyn te koop en te verbruik, en hoe hou hulle verband met mekaar? Hoekom is daar ’n segment van verbruikers van organiese wyn wat tussen organiese en konvensionele wyn ‘dryf’? Die studie maak gebruik van ’n konstruktivistiese gegronde teoretiese benadering om hierdie navorsingsvrae te beantwoord. Die bevindinge wat aangebied word kom uit 25 onderhoude met ’n verskeidenheid verbruikers van konvensionele en organiese wyn in die Verenigde Koninkryk (VK). Die studie brei bestaande teorie oor die waardepersepsies van verbruikers van organiese wyn uit. Verbruikers van organiese wyn ontwikkel hulle waardepersepsies deur ’n proses wat die samespel behels tussen die emosies wat deur organiese wyn gegenereer word en die persepsies van die voordele wat verkry word uit die verbruik van organiese wyn. Die motiverings van verbruikers van organiese wyn is persoonlik en selfsugtig eerder as altruïsties. ’n Siklus van selektiewe soeke na inligting lei tot die ontwikkeling en konstante versterking van ’n emosionele (eerder as kognitiewe) verbruikerslojaliteit aan organiese wyn. Verbruikers van organiese wyn is egter nie dogmaties in hulle gedrag nie en is buigsaam oor die koop en verbruik van konvensionele wyn sonder om dissonansie te ervaar nie. Hierdie buigsaamheid bied ’n begrip vir hoekom verbruikers van organiese wyn kan dryf tussen organiese en konvensionele wyn. Gevolglik stel hierdie studie ’n alternatiewe konseptuele model voor van hierdie verbruikers se persepsies van die waarde van organiese wyn. Die bevindinge stel voor dat nog navorsing geregverdig is om insigte te lewer oor die blywende betrokkenheid van verbruikers by organiese wyn, asook oor die uitbreiding van die toepasbaarheid van die voorgestelde konseptualisasie na organiese produkte oor die algemeen. Die bemarkers van organiese wyn moet minder fokus op die volhoubaarheidskenmerke van die wyn en meer konsentreer op die voordele wat dit aan verbruikers persoonlik sal verskaf.Doctora

Food System and Food Security Study for the City of Cape Town

Food insecurity is a critical, but poorly understood, challenge for the health and development of Capetonians. Food insecurity is often imagined as hunger, but it is far broader than that. Households are considered food secure when they have “physical and economic access to sufficient and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (WHO/FAO 1996). Health is not merely the absence of disease, but also encompasses good nutrition and healthy lifestyles. Individuals in a food insecure household and/or community are at greater risk due to diets of poor nutritional value, which lowers immunity against diseases. In children, food insecurity is known to stunt growth and development and this places the child in a disadvantaged position from early on in life. Any improvement in the nutritional profile of an individual is beneficial and as the family and community become more food secure, the greater the benefit. It further reduces the demand on health services. In the Cape Town context, food insecurity manifests not just as hunger, but as long term consumption of a limited variety of foods, reduction in meal sizes and choices to eat calorie dense, nutritionally poor foods in an effort to get enough food to get by. Associated with this food insecurity are chronic malnutrition and micronutrient deficiency, particularly among young children, and an increase in obesity, diabetes and other diet related illnesses. Food insecurity is therefore not about food not being available, it is about households not having the economic or physical resources to access enough of the right kind of food. The latest study of food insecurity in Cape Town found that 75 percent of households in sampled low-income areas were food insecure, with 58 percent falling into the severely food insecurity category. Food insecurity is caused by household scale characteristics, such as income poverty, but also by wider structural issues, such as the local food retail environment and the price and availability of healthy relative to less healthy foods. The City of Cape Town therefore commissioned a study based on the following understanding of the food security challenge facing the City. “Food security or the lack thereof is the outcome of complex and multi-dimensional factors comprising a food system. Therefore, food insecurity is the result of failures or inefficiencies in one or more dimensions of the food system. This necessitates a holistic analysis of the food system that than can provide insights into the various components of the system, especially in our context as a developing world city.” The call for a food system study sees the City of Cape Town taking the lead nationally, being the first metropolitan area to seek to engage in the food system in a holistic manner and attempting to understand what role the city needs to play in the food system. The City must work towards a food system that is reliable, sustainable and transparent. Such a system will generate household food security that is less dependent on welfarist responses to the challenge. In this context, reliability is taken to mean stable and consistent prices, the nutritional quality of available and accessible food, and food safety. Sustainability means that the food system does not degrade the environmental, economic and social environment. Finally, transparency refers to the legibility of the system and its control by the state and citizens