Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring

Real-time and reliable detection of molecular compounds and bacteria is essential in modern environmental monitoring. For rapid analyses, biosensing devices combining high selectivity of biomolecular recognition and sensitivity of modern signal-detection technologies offer a promising platform. Biosensors allow rapid on-site detection of pollutants and provide potential for better understanding of the environmental processes, including the fate and transport of contaminants.This book, including 12 chapters from 37 authors, introduces different biosensor-based technologies applied for environmental analyses

Marine Ecosystem Challenges & Opportunities (MECOS 3)

The Marine Biological Association of India (MBAI), established in 1958, is proud to gear up for MECOS3, the third symposium on Marine Ecosystems- Challenges and Opportunities during 7-10 January, 2020. The MBAI besides organising MECOS1 (2009) and MECOS2 (2014) has inculcated active interest and participation among its members by handling several national and international symposia/seminars, since its formation. The MBAI has 794 life members and 20 institutional members. The mandate of the MBAI is promotion of scientific research in the field of marine biology and allied sciences

Pharmacological screening of nymphaea species linn. (Nymphaeaceae)

The herbal medicines are the major remedy in traditional medicinal system and are being used in medicinal practices for thousands of years. They have made a great contribution in maintaining human health. The practice continues even today because of its biomedicinal benefits in many parts of the world. There is a phenomenal increase in the demand for the herbal medicines especially for those, which have been scientifically validated. These drugs are invariably single plant extracts or fractions thereof, which have been carefully standardized and their efficacy and safety for a suggested application, well demonstrated. In the present study an attempt has been made to standardize two flowers of same families traditionally used for medicine plants by carrying out their pharmacognostical, phytochemical and pharmacological studies as per the standard procedures. The evaluation of potent flower extracts for their phytochemical, In-vitro and In-vivo antioxidant, antidiabetic and anticancer properties were carried out. Isolation of the phyto-constituents from the potent flower extracts using column chromatography and their characterization was also carried out. The plant materials were collected from in and around Dharmapuri and Krishnagiri districts lakes, Tamilnadu, India and authenticated. The fresh flower materials were collected and used for morphological identification and microscopical studies. The dried flower materials were coarsely powdered and used for extraction with pet-ether, chloroform, ethylacetate and hydroalcoholic extracts using hot continuous soxhlet apparatus individually. All the extracts were concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure and controlled temperature (40-50ºC). Pharmacognostical evaluation was carried out in order to establish the identity and to standardize the flowers. Morphological and microscopical characters, determination of various Physicochemical parameters like loss on drying, ash values like total ash, acid insoluble ash, sulphated ash and water soluble ash, extractive values like water soluble and alcohol soluble extractive values, foreign organic matter, pH, heavy metals, solubility, micro-organisms, foaming index and fluorescence analysis were determined. In fluorescence analysis, the flower powders and their extracts were treated with several acids and reagents. The color changes were observed under UV and visible lights. In the microchemical analysis, the flower powders were treated with several acids and reagents and the color changes were observed under microscope. These results gave clues regarding the presence of some particular phytoconstituents in the respective flower powders and extracts. The phytochemical studies of both the flower extracts showed the major presence of carbohydrates, flavonoids, proteins and amino acids, triterpenoids, phenolic compounds. Alkaloids and steroids were found to be present in all except pet-ether extracts. All the extracts were subjected to TLC and HPTLC analysis using several solvent systems. The solvent system Ethyl acetate: Formic acid: Acetic acid: Water (100:11:11:27) was found to be the better solvent system for the separation of all extracts especially for flavonoids. All the extracts were subjected to HPTLC standardization using the same solvent systems used in TLC. The Rf values of the separated components and their quantities in the extracts were found out. The total phenolic contents of the extracts were estimated using Folin-Ciocalteu method. The total phenolic content was found to be high (101.71±0.09μg GAE/g) in the ethyl acetate extract of Nymphaea pubescens Willdenow when compared to all extracts and the total flavonoid content was found to be high (104.71±0.09μg QE/mg) in the ethyl acetate extract of Nymphaea pubescens Willdenow when compared to all extracts. So the ethyl acetate extracts Nymphaea pubescens was found to be the highest among all the other extracts estimated. From this it concludes that the flowers could serve as a source of Natural Antioxidants. In the HPTLC studies, the same solvent system used in TLC were used for the separation. The number of compounds separated, their Rf values and their percentage were noted. The chloroform and ethylacetate extract of Nymphaea pubescens flowers showed the presence of 8 spots and 6 of them with Rf values 0.11, 0.29, 0.45, 0.62, 0.72 and 0.80, were found to be the major ones with about 23 and 18%, 30 and 19%, 55 and 11%, 58 and 11% peak areas for pet ether, chloroform, ethylacetate and hydroalcoholic extracts respectively. The chloroform and ethylacetate extract of Nymphaea nouchali flowers showed the presence of 8 spots and 4 of them with Rf values 0.29, 0.45, 0.72 and 0.80, were found to be the major ones with about 23 and 17%, 30 and 19%, 55 and 19%, 58 and 11% peak areas for pet ether, chloroform, ethylacetate and hydroalcoholic extracts respectively. The HPTLC studies reveal the presence of major active components particularly flavonoids, the extracts of Nymphaea pubescens Willdenow and Nymphaea nouchali Burmann. F. flowers showed the presence of flavonoids. Two compounds were isolated from the ethylacetate extracts of Nymphaea pubescens and Nymphaea nouchali flowers individually. The isolated compounds were subjected to Physico-chemical and Spectral studies. The isolated and characterized compounds include rutin, 1, 3, 6, 8 Tetra Hydroxy Anthraquinone and Apigenin -8-C Glycoside which are found to be the major flavonoids present in the flowers was identified for the first time in this research. The isolated compounds were subjected to spectral studies to give the possible structure for the compounds. Among the two flower extracts tested for In-vitro antioxidant activity, the ethylacetate extract of Nymphaea pubescens exhibit potent antioxidant activity with low IC50 DPPH, FRAP, TRAP and ABTS radical scavenging methods. The IC50 values were found to be 78.86%, 1.205±0.002μg/mL, 39.24μg/mL and 76.46±0.060μg/mL for DPPH, FRAP, TRAP and ABTS methods respectively. However, these IC50 values were found to be higher or comparable with those obtained for the standards used. In the other extracts of the flowers showed IC50 values indicating moderate to low antioxidant activity in other methods. Based on the results of In-vitro studies, the flower extracts was selected for In-vivo antioxidant and Hepatoprotective studies. In the present investigation, it was observed that the animals treated with paracetamol resulted in significant hepatic damage as shown by the elevated levels of serum markers. These changes in the marker levels will reflect in hepatic structural integrity. The rise in the SGOT is usually accompanied by an elevation in the levels of SGPT, which play a vital role in the conversion of amino acids to keto acids. The pre-treatment with EAENP, HANP, EAENN and HANN (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) and Silymarin significantly attenuated the elevated levels of the serum markers. The normalization of serum markers by EAENP, HANP, EAENN and HANN suggests that they are able to condition the hepatocytes so as to protect the membrane integrity against paracetamol induced leakage of marker enzymes into the circulation. Serum ALP and bilirubin levels, on the other hand are related to hepatic cell damage. Increase in serum level of ALP is due to increased synthesis in presence of increasing biliary pressure. Effective control of bilirubin level and alkaline phosphatase activity points towards an early improvement in the secretory mechanism of the hepatic cell. The Non-Enzymic Antioxidant, glutathione is one of the most abundant tripeptides present in the liver. Its functions are mainly concerned with the removal of free radical species such as hydrogen peroxide, superoxide radicals, alkoxy radicals, and maintenance of membrane proteinthiols and as a substrate for glutathione peroxidase and GST. Lipid peroxidation has been postulated to the destructive process of liver injury due to acetaminophen administration. The increase in malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in liver suggests enhanced lipid peroxidation leading to tissue damage and failure of antioxidant defence mechanisms to prevent formation of excessive free radicals. Treatment with EAENP, HANP, EAENN and HANN (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) and Silymarin has reversed the paracetamol induced elevated lipid peroxidation was decreased. Hence it may be possible that the mechanism of hepatoprotection by EAENP, HANP, EAENN and HANN is due to its antioxidant effect. The Enzymic Antioxidant defence system is the nature protector against lipid peroxidation. SOD, CAT and GPx enzymes are important scavengers of superoxide ion and hydrogen peroxide. These enzymes prevent generation of hydroxyl radical and protect the cellular constituents from oxidative damage. In the present study, it was observed that the EAENP, HANP, EAENN and HANN significantly increased the hepatic SOD activity in paracetamol induced liver damage in rats. This show EAENP, HANP, EAENN and HANN (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) and Silymarin can reduce reactive free radicals that might lessen oxidative damage to the tissues and improve the activities of the hepatic antioxidant enzyme. The histological evidence authenticated the injury caused by paracetamol and the protection offered by the flowers of EAENP, HANP, EAENN and HANN to hepatocytes. Microscopical examination revealed loss of architecture and cell necrosis with inflammatory collections in the central zone in paracetamol - induced rats. Prior oral administration with EAENP, HANP, EAENN and HANN extracts and Silymarin prevented completely the histopathological changes in liver induced by paracetamol. Thus the histopathological studies serve as a direct evidence of efficacy of drug as protectant. The results of histopathological study also support the result of biochemical. These observations indicate that of Nymphaea pubescens and Nymphaea nouchali possess hepatoprotective activity against PCM induced hepatotoxicity. Diabetes mellitus is a complex and diverse group of disorders characterized by hyperglycaemia that has reached epidemic proportions in the present century. Several synthetic drugs being utilized, but those have several side effects to avoid such effects researchers come up with new class of compounds which are having essential targets to overcome these problems. Globally, there is a positive trend in favour of traditional and integrative medicine in both research and practice. So, traditional antidiabetic plants might provide new oral hypoglycaemic compounds, which can encounter the high cost and poor specificity of the current medicines. A wide range of chemical compounds are present in the herbal plant, which are having a similar action like synthetic drugs (Piyush M Patel, 2006). Single Dose Study for 120 min was carried out in normo-glycemic rats. High dose of EAENP HAENP, EAENN and HAENN (400 mg/kg, p.o.) showed maximum decrease in blood glucose levels at 120 min compared to normal group. It may produce hypoglycemia in normal animals by stimulating the pancreatic beta-cells to produce more Insulin and by increasing the glycogen deposition in the liver. Oral Glucose Tolerance Test was studied on the normal rats. The lowering of glucose can be seen well in assay of glucose tolerance (Versphol EJ., 2002). The fasting blood glucose levels decreases in Metformin, along with EAENP HAENP, EAENN and HAENN high dose and medium dose treated rats. Low dose shows reduced activity at 120 min. Such a phenomenon was already seen in the indigenous plants and reported. Induction of Diabetes with Alloxan (ALX) is associated with a characteristic decrease in body weight than the normal rats, this may be due to the wasting and loss of tissue protein. Whereas, diabetic rats treated with 100, 200 and 400mg/kg, p.o. of EAENP HAENP, EAENN and HAENN showed an improved result when compared with normal diabetic control. Which may be due to the protective effect in controlling muscle wasting i.e., reversal of gluconeogenesis and may also be due to the improvement of glycaemia control. Diabetic rats treated with the medium, high dose of (200 and 400mg/kg, p.o.) EAENP, HAENP, EAENN and HAENN and Metformin has shown a significant decrease in the levels of TG, TC, LDL-C and VLDL-C, where as it increases the levels of HDL-C when compared to the normal diabetic control rats. In low dose of EAENP, HAENP, EAENN and HAENN treated rats HDL-C levels is less significant. The histological evidence showed in the authenticated injury caused by ALX and the protection offered by EAENP, HAENP, EAENN and HAENN (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) and Metformin in pancreatic cells were shown. Microscopically examination revealed loss of architecture and cell necrosis with inflammatory collections in the central zone in ALX induced rats. Histopathological study showed that Nymphaea pubescens and Nymphaea nouchali has the capacity to increase Islet cell mass. The Anti-Cancer potential of the extracts was assessed by change in survival time, body weight, total ascites fluid volume, packed cell volume, tumor cell count and haematological parameters. The ascites fluid is the direct nutritional source for tumor cells, and the faster increase in ascites fluid with tumor growth could possibly be a means to meet the nutritional requirements of tumor cells. The ethylacetate and hydro-alcoholic extracts of Nymphaea pubescens and Nymphaea nouchali treated animals at doses of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg b.w. p.o., inhibited the body weight, tumor volume, packed cell volume, tumor cell count, and also reverted the haematological parameters to approximately normal levels when compared DAL tumor bearing mice showing varied protection. In DAL-bearing hosts, regular rapid increase in ascites tumor volume was observed. In Ascites model following the inoculation of DAL tumor cell lines a marked decrease in life span and increase in body weight of mice were observed. Ascites fluid is the direct nutritional source to tumor cells and the faster increase in ascites fluid with tumor growth could possibly be a means to meet more nutritional requirement of tumor cells. A regular rapid increase in ascites tumor volume was noted in tumor bearing mice (increase in body weight). The percentage decrease in the body weight after treatment with EAENP, HAENP, EAENN and HAENN for 14 days, was reported. EAENP, HAENP, EAENN and HAENN400 mg/kg b.w. p.o., showed maximum percentage decrease in body weight when compared with vehicle treated cancerous animals. Treatment with EAENP, HAENP, EAENN and HAENN 400 mg/kg b.w. p.o., significantly (p < 0.001) decreased the tumor volume and packed cell volume when compared to that of DAL control group. The effect EAENP, HAENP, EAENN and HAENN 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg b.w. p.o dose of haematological parameters against DAL induced animals estimated on 14th day of treatment. EAENP, HAENP, EAENN and HAENN 400mg/kg b.w. p.o., showed better improvement in the haematological parameters than the rest of the doses among the compared groups. The total WBC count found significantly (p < 0.001) increased in the DAL control group. All the test drugs when administered to the EAC bearing mice showed the significant (p <0.001) decrease in the WBC count when compared with the DAL control group, with EAENP, HAENP, EAENN and HAENN 400 mg/kg b.w. p.o., showing the significant decrease in the WBC when compared to the DAL control (p < 0.001) groups. RBC count and Hb content in the DAL groups were significantly (p < 0.001) decreased as compared to the normal group. Treatment with EAENP, HAENP, EAENN and HAENN 400mg/kg b.w. p.o., significantly (p <0.001) increased the RBC and Hb content when compared with the DAL control. All the test drugs have showed the significant increase but EAENP, HAENP, EAENN and HAENN 400mg/kg b.w. p.o. showed the better activity compared to rest of the drugs and doses. The above parameters are responsible for the anti-cancer activity Nymphaea pubescens and Nymphaea nouchali. The present research work provides the pharmacognostical and phytochemical evaluation profiles to identity the two flowers drugs. HPTLC fingerprint of the flowers are useful in identifying the chemical entities and their quantities present therein. The ethylacetate extract of the flowers of Nymphaea pubescens shows potent antioxidant properties when compared to all other extracts of the flowers. In In-vivo Antioxidant Studies, the ethylacetate extracts of both the flowers, EAENP, HAENP, EAENN and HAENN (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) and Silymarin on treatment shows significant reduction in the wet liver weight and wet liver volumes of animals and hence it possesses statistically significant hepatoprotective activity. Alloxan Induced Diabetic rats is associated with a characteristic decrease in body weight than the normal rats, this may be due to the wasting and loss of tissue protein. Whereas, diabetic rats treated with 100, 200 and 400mg/kg, p.o. of EAENP HAENP, EAENN and HAENN showed an improved result when compared with normal diabetic control. Which may be due to the protective effect in controlling muscle wasting i.e., reversal of gluconeogenesis and may also be due to the improvement of glycaemia control. Anti-Cancer potential of the extracts was assessed by change in survival time, body weight, total ascites fluid volume, packed cell volume, tumor cell count and haematological parameters. The ethylacetate and hydro-alcoholic extracts of Nymphaea pubescens and Nymphaea nouchali treated animals at doses of 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg b.w. p.o., inhibited the body weight, tumor volume, packed cell volume, tumor cell count, and also reverted the haematological parameters to approximately normal levels when compared DAL tumor bearing mice showing varied protection. In DAL-bearing hosts, regular rapid increase in ascites tumor volume was observed. Based on the above results obtained and observations we can infer that the flowers under study, Nymphaea pubescens and Nymphaea nouchali could be used for the supportive treatment of hepatotoxicity, diabetes mellitus and cancer as the flowers also offers effective protection against the attack of free radicals that forms the basis for the development of diabetic complications, hepatic damage and for certain case of viral treatment. Such antioxidant and antidiabetic herbal drugs developed through standardization and validation studies will certainly contribute to combat this deadly disease. Further in depth molecular level isolation and screened for clinical as well as toxicological studies can result in an eco-friendly human compatible antioxidant, hepatoprotective and antidiabetic herbal drug or herbal molecule from these selected traditional as well as tribal flower drug sources

Optimisation, Optimal Control and Nonlinear Dynamics in Electrical Power, Energy Storage and Renewable Energy Systems

The electrical power system is undergoing a revolution enabled by advances in telecommunications, computer hardware and software, measurement, metering systems, IoT, and power electronics. Furthermore, the increasing integration of intermittent renewable energy sources, energy storage devices, and electric vehicles and the drive for energy efficiency have pushed power systems to modernise and adopt new technologies. The resulting smart grid is characterised, in part, by a bi-directional flow of energy and information. The evolution of the power grid, as well as its interconnection with energy storage systems and renewable energy sources, has created new opportunities for optimising not only their techno-economic aspects at the planning stages but also their control and operation. However, new challenges emerge in the optimization of these systems due to their complexity and nonlinear dynamic behaviour as well as the uncertainties involved.This volume is a selection of 20 papers carefully made by the editors from the MDPI topic “Optimisation, Optimal Control and Nonlinear Dynamics in Electrical Power, Energy Storage and Renewable Energy Systems”, which was closed in April 2022. The selected papers address the above challenges and exemplify the significant benefits that optimisation and nonlinear control techniques can bring to modern power and energy systems

Qualifying and Quantifying the Rate of Decomposition in the Delaware River Valley Region

Human decompositional changes and the post-mortem interval (PMI) required to produce those effects have been demonstrated to vary tremendously based on environmental conditions specific to the region in which decomposition is taking place. Studies to that effect have been conducted in select areas throughout the country, but have yet to be undertaken in southeastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware. Given the hypothesis regarding regional differences in the rate of decay, this study set out to assess the decomposition process as it applies to the Delaware River Valley (DRV) region and to provide formulas from which to estimate time since death. The dearth of studies in this area, highlighted the need for region-specific standards, increased the accuracy of time since death estimates, and improved quantitative methods. To this end, a retroactive approach was taken in which cases from the Delaware Office of the Chief Medical Examiner with a known date last seen and date recovered were compiled. Using these cases, a qualitative analysis was conducted examining the specific decompositional changes which occur in various contexts. Quantitatively, a linear regression analysis was employed to determine if accumulated degree days (ADD) or PMI explained more of the variation in decomposition. To complement this work, a multivariate regression analysis was conducted to identify key covariates and assess their impact on the rate of decay. Lastly, to validate region-specific standards, the DRV models were compared to those presented in Megyesi et al. (2005). For this validation process, a specific progression to decomposition in the DRV was identified and total body score (TBS) systems for both outdoor and indoor cases, and aquatic depositions, were developed. ADD and TBS were determined to be central components in modeling decay. In addition, outdoor cases were demonstrated to decompose fastest. Finally, the DRV model explained more of the variation in decomposition and more accurately estimated ADD than that of Megyesi et al. (2005). In total, a set of time since death estimation formulas applicable to indoor, outdoor, and aquatic contexts were produced, and region-specific standards best-suited to estimating time since death in the Delaware River Valley were developed

Biological and economical feasibility studies of using seaweeds Ulva lactuca (Chlorophyta) in recirculation systems in abalone farming

Includes bibliographical references (p. 282-311).The aim of this study was to investigate whether a land-based recirculating seaweed-abalone integrated aquaculture system using Ulva lactuca was feasible as well as to test the differences between a commercial gravel bed recirculation system to an existing flow through system. These studies were carried out at two abalone farms: Danger Point (I & J) (140 km east of Cape Town) and at Jacobs Bay (JSP) (120 km north of Cape Town. South Africa). In both studies no significant difference in terms of water quality, abalone growth rates and abalone health were found. It was found that a seaweed /abalone recirculating system at the designed water exchange rates (25 %) was nitrogen limited and that the system as designed could be run at 75 % recirculation rate and remove a significant proportion of the dissolved nutrients (ammonium, phosphorus, nitrate and nitrite)

Forest landscapes and global change. New frontiers in management, conservation and restoration. Proceedings of the IUFRO Landscape Ecology Working Group International Conference

This volume contains the contributions of numerous participants at the IUFRO Landscape Ecology Working Group International Conference, which took place in Bragança, Portugal, from 21 to 24 of September 2010. The conference was dedicated to the theme Forest Landscapes and Global Change - New Frontiers in Management, Conservation and Restoration. The 128 papers included in this book follow the structure and topics of the conference. Sections 1 to 8 include papers relative to presentations in 18 thematic oral and two poster sessions. Section 9 is devoted to a wide-range of landscape ecology fields covered in the 12 symposia of the conference. The Proceedings of the IUFRO Landscape Ecology Working Group International Conference register the growth of scientific interest in forest landscape patterns and processes, and the recognition of the role of landscape ecology in the advancement of science and management, particularly within the context of emerging physical, social and political drivers of change, which influence forest systems and the services they provide. We believe that these papers, together with the presentations and debate which took place during the IUFRO Landscape Ecology Working Group International Conference – Bragança 2010, will definitively contribute to the advancement of landscape ecology and science in general. For their additional effort and commitment, we thank all the participants in the conference for leaving this record of their work, thoughts and science

Unveiling the challenges of curbing wildlife crime in Kenya : evaluating the 3Cs solution.

This is an original thematic research thesis that investigated the causes that lead to the current unprecedented escalation of wildlife crime in Africa that threatens to destroy our global environment by decimating and driving our wildlife which is a global heritage to extinction. The research study which was conducted both in Kenya and in the United Kingdom, has developed unique and distinguishable proposals, methods and recommendations, referred to as the 3Cs solutions, which can be effectively utilized in combating and curbing wildlife crime at a global scale. Nature has provided very delicate and sophisticated ecological systems where all plants and animals have very important roles that they play which keeps this planet Earth’s environment habitable. The realization that the future of this World and the entire human race is greatly linked to these global ecological systems and their biodiversity balance has caused a new global awareness and eagerness to view these eco-systems and the entire global environment as one and to halt destruction of any of these eco-systems taking place anywhere on planet Earth. Wildlife crime is currently the greatest threat to the ecological system and its bio-diversity balance in Africa and by extension to the global environment, as it is destroying an ecological and bio-diversity system of a globally important biome and green belt area south of the Sahara. East, Central and Southern Africa have been identified as the largest source markets that supply illegal wildlife trophies to the consumer markets in the Far East Asia, Western Europe the Middle East and the USA. Yet some of these supply source countries have functioning legal systems that have failed to curb this crime. Kenya is one such country. Kenya was selected for this study because it is the region’s major logistics and trading hub for illegal wildlife crime trophies. Kenya has a functioning Criminal Justice System mandated to combat wildlife crime yet it has badly failed to do so. The three departments within that Criminal Justice System which are mandate to protect wildlife by enforcing wildlife crime laws in Kenya are Kenya Wildlife Services (KWS) warders for policing, the Prosecution and the Judiciary. The main purpose of this study was therefore to investigate and understand why a functioning legal system is unable to combat wildlife crime by determining the challenges it faces in curbing this vice. The study focused on wildlife crime committed for commercial export purposes and identified 5 prime species that are targeted for their trophies for illegal export which are the elephant, rhino, lion, leopard and cheetah herein after referred to in this study as the ‘Charismatic Five. The study employed Empirical research methods to conduct the research and to answer the research questions. Qualitative and quantitative research techniques were utilized. The study adopted the descriptive survey research design in order to assist the researcher achieve the objective of the study. Five national parks were selected for the study being the parks where the charismatic 5 wildlife species are abundantly found and therefore the targeted parks by poachers. The population of the study were therefore Kenya Wildlife Service Wardens in the selected national parks, Magistrates and Prosecutors serving in the courts where these parks are located. A peer review of this study’s research tool was first done followed by pilot study carried out at the Nairobi National Park in Kenya, which tested and found the research tool to be suitable, reliable and valid to achieve the overall research objectives. The main survey was conducted in Kenya and took over 4 months for data collection to be completed. Data analysis was done in the United Kingdom. Inferential statistics were used in drawing conclusions. Out of the 156 questionnaires distributed, 152 were completed and returned, representing a 97% response rate due to massive interest shown on the topic by the respondents. The study identified 20 causes and challenges being experienced within the criminal justice system and made recommendations for each challenge that offers the best solution to resolving that challenge. This research study has developed and promulgates some conclusive proposals as its original contributions to knowledge. These contributions are supported by analytical and empirical evidence from this research study and are as follows: Firstly, it challenges the Apocryphal Cause that corruption is the cause of the escalation of wildlife crime. Based on the evidence collected through this research, it can now be categorically and authentically proved that the sudden upward surge of demand in wildlife trophies in the consumers markets of the Far East Countries is the leading cause of escalation of wildlife crime in the source markets like Kenya. Secondly, this study has developed a new concept called ‘The 3Cs’ concept, through which it proposes and offers new methods for combating wildlife crime. The concept is conceptualized and propounded in a pack consisting of The Concept; The 3Cs Test; The 3C’s Model; and, the 3 Cs Application Tool Kit. Overall, it is sincerely hoped that the finding of this research will dominate discussions in the global arena dealing with wildlife crime and contribute tremendously as a solution to this global cause