Digital Divide in Estonia and How To Bridge It

Estonia is one of the most rapidly developing information societies in Central and Eastern Europe. Still, 61% of the Estonian adult population does not use the Internet. The analysis, carried out by the research company Emor and PRAXIS Center for Policy Studies, looked thoroughly at the reasons and motivation for not using the Internet of this particular population group. The research did not address the issue of the digital divide between countries. The research clearly shows that one third of the current non-users understand the opportunities offered by the Internet and want to take advantage of them, but are limited by a lack of skills and access. Two- thirds of the non-users (40% of the adult population) do not consciously think of the Internet as of an interesting and useful tool; more practical services and an awareness campaign are thus needed for them. The latter group depends on daily routine and already shaped-out habits – it is hard for them to accept the Internet as a new channel of information and management of public affairs. The research draws several interesting conclusions. Among them is that people believe that an Internet bank as a fully developed web-service is a trustworthy partner for managing one’s business independently. At the same time, regarding public sector e-services, people are certain that much depends on the discretion of the public servant and that therefore electronic services do not suffice. Hence, if the public sector were able to offer its services fully on the web like Internet banks, its reliability will increase and negative opinions decline. The fact that “light-users” of the Internet do not consider security on the net a problem is an acknowledgement of the successful efforts by service providers so far. Medical services were pointed out most often by the present non-users as having the potential to motivate them to start using the Internet. PRAXIS and Emor also compiled policy recommendations based on the research results, which are all listed in the final report. The research was carried out by Emor and PRAXIS Center for Policy Studies from January to July 2002. The research was commissioned and financed by the Open Estonia Foundation, the Look@World Foundation and the State Chancellery of the Republic of Estonia. It was co-financed by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the Open Society Institute in Budapest (OSI - Budapest).Internet, Information Technology, Digital Divide, Transition country, Rural development, Telecommunication, Estonia

Tacit Web: Entrepreneurial Discovery, Institutional Complexity and Internet Diffusion

This dissertation investigates how institutional frameworks and entrepreneurial discovery processes condition internet diffusion. While internet and internet-based technologies have received considerable scholarly attention, the dissertation emphasizes tacit elements in understanding internet diffusion. In order to do so, it incorporates perspectives on insttitutional complexity stemming from interactions of formal and informal institutions and different institutional logics. Empiral part consists both macro level comparisons of Estonia and Slovenia as well as micro level analysis of internet diffusion processes within Estonia. Estonia and Slovenia are selected for comparison because of considerable variance in insitutional frameworks. At the same time, both countries are relatively small and members of the European Union. This allows to focus on specific institutional configurations and path-dependencies in constraining and enabling the diffusion of internet. I find that internet is diffused more extensively and intensively in Estonia. Different socio-economic groups use more sophisticated online services in Estonia than in Slovenia. Once specific institutional configurations in general and in the telecom sector in particular are considered then it emerges that insitutional frameworks in Estonia have been more facilitative of entrepreneurial discovery processes over time. As a result, supply and demand for innovative online services in Estonia is greater than in Slovenia. After comparative perspective on two countries, the dissertation proceeds to analyze specific cases of online initiatives in Estonia such as internet banking and internet voting. Examination of outcomes shows how some of these initiatives have been successful and created reasons for adoption and use of internet on the individual level leading to a greater diffusion on macro level. My analysis demonstrates that positive outcomes have often been unintended result of experimentation through the process of entrepreneurial discovery within the context of institutions and path-dependencies. Evidence for this finding is bolstered by study of heterogeneous cases of various ICT initiatives. By emphazing institutional complexity and policy heterogeneity, the dissertation illuminates and explains the tacit nature of internet diffusion in a specific context of Estonia. This implies that Estonia has followed a unique developmental trajectory which cannot be generalized and transferred to other countries

Õpetaja professionaalne agentsus digitaalse tehnoloogia integreerimisel õpetamisse Eesti ja Läti koolides

Väitekirja elektrooniline versioon ei sisalda publikatsiooneDoktoritöö “Õpetaja professionaalne agentsus digitaalse tehnoloogia integreerimisel õpetamisse Eesti ja Läti koolides” eesmärgiks on uurida, kuidas õpetaja professionaalne agentsus on väljendatud viisides, millega õpetajad tegutsevad erinevates personaalsetes, situatiivsetes ja kontekstuaalsetes tegurites, mis on seotud digitaaltehnoloogia integreerimisega õppetöösse nii Läti kui ka Eesti koolides. Minu doktoritöö aktuaalsus on ühest küljest seotud asjaoluga, et Euroopa õpetajad on üldiselt vabad otsustamaks kasutatavate õpetamisviiside üle, kuid teisest küljest mainivad õpetajad järjest piiravamaid töö hindamisvahendeid, väliseid hindamissüsteeme, aruandereegleid ning õppekavade nõudeid. Taoliste pingete uurimine näitab, kuidas õpetaja professionaalne agentsus ilmneb konkreetsetes kontekstides erinevate personaalsete, situatiivsete, sotsiaalsete ja kontekstuaalsete mõjude taustal. Oma doktoritöös soovin selle asemel, et läheneda õpetaja agentsusele “muutuste poolt” vs “muutuste vastu” vaadete kaudu, mõista õpetajate reageeringuid hariduslikele muudatustele oluliselt laiema spektri kaudu. Selle doktoritöö empiirilised materjalid hõlmavad andmeid 26 semistruktureeritud intervjuust erinevate aineõpetajatega Eestis ja Lätis, tunnivaatlusi ja uurimust õpetajate infootsingulisest käitumisest veebis. Oma doktoritöö tulemusena pakun välja uue tüpoloogia, mis koosneb viiest erinevast õpetaja agentsuse väljendusviisist: entusiastlik omastamine, pragmaatiline sulandamine, reserveeritud tasakaalustamine, piiratud kohanemine ja skeptiline ritualism. Doktoritöös näitan, et õpetajate seisukohad ja valikud IKT integreerimisel õppetöösse on seotud väga keeruka võrgustikuga mõjutustest, millest olulisematena tuleb rõhutada enesetõhususe tajumist, tugevat ainevaldkonnaga seotud identiteeti ning vajadust vastata õpetajate tööle esitatud kvaliteedinõuetele. Variatiivsused õpetaja agentsuse väljendusviisides paljastavad raskesti märgatavaid konflikte ja ebakõlasid erinevate ning sageli tehnoloogiaga mitte seotud väärtuste, survete ja nõudmiste vahel, mille keskel püüavad õpetajad leida tasakaalu oma professionaalsete rollide ja vastutuste täitmiseks. Minu doktoritöö näitab, et leidub õpetajaid, kelle jaoks IKT kasutuselevõtt on avanud uusi võimalusi eksperimenteerimiseks, mängimiseks ja uute õpetamismeetodite katsetamiseks. Samas osutus teiste õpetajate jaoks IKT kasutamine vahendiks välise heakskiidu saavutamisel ning kaasaegse ja “moodsa” õpetaja kuvandi loomisel ning hoidmisel. Paljude valimisse kuulunud õpetajate jaoks on IKT kasutus koolides tekitanud olukordi, kus neil on tulnud muuta oma seniseid praktikaid ning teha valikuid selle kohta, kuidas IKT-d õpetamisse sobitada. Tuginedes oma doktoritöö järeldustele, rõhutan, et vaid siis, kui mõistame õpetajate olulist rolli IKT strateegia vahendajana ja pöörame tähelepanu kontekstidele, kus õpetajad sätestatud põhimõtteid tõlgendavad ning ellu viivad, on võimalik aru saada, miks tehnoloogia integreerimine koolides toimub just nii, nagu see toimub. Õpetajate praktikaid mõjutavate erinevate tegurite vastastikmõju komplekssuse ja mitmetahulise olemuse mõistmine võib viia tulemuslikuma dialoogini poliitikakujundajate ning õpetajate kogukonna vahel ning sedakaudu läbimõeldumate arengustrateegiateni.The aim of the doctoral study “Teacher professional agency in relation to digital technology integration in teaching in Estonian and Latvian schools” is to explore how teacher professional agency is manifested in the ways teachers navigate within the different personal, situational and contextual factors related to digital technology integration in teaching in Latvian and Estonian schools. The topicality of this dissertation lies in the fact that digital technology is widely perceived as an integral part of every subject area. Additionally, teachers in Europe generally are granted autonomy in deciding on their instructional approaches, although they report being increasingly exposed to tightening performativity measures, which include the use of ICT, external evaluation systems, accountability rules and curriculum requirements. Explorations of such tensions reveals how teacher professional agency emerges in relation to ICT use within particular contexts shaped by various personal, situational, social and contextual influences. This doctoral study avoids the often-applied “pro-change versus con-change” conceptualization of teacher agency, instead showing the broadness of the spectrum of teachers’ responses to educational change. The empirical basis of this study consists of data from 26 semi-structured interviews with different subject teachers in Estonia and Latvia, class observations, and a study of teacher online search behaviour. As a result of this doctoral study, a new typology of teacher agency manifestations is proposed, distinguishing between enthusiastic appropriation, pragmatic assimilation, reserved balance, hampered accommodation and sceptical ritualism. This PhD study demonstrates that out of the complex network of influences, teacher stances and choices of ICT integration in teaching are most strongly related to self-efficacy beliefs, strong subject-related identity and the need to establish teacher accountability policies. Variations in teacher agency manifestations reveal the underlying conflicts and inconsistencies between the different and often non-technological values, pressures and demands which teachers try to balance in order to fulfil their professional roles and responsibilities. This doctoral study indicates that for some teachers the arrival of ICT opened new avenues for experimenting, playing and trying out new teaching methods, while for others the use of ICT turned out to be a means of receiving external approval and creating and sustaining the image of being a “modern” teacher. For many teachers in the sample, the presence of ICT in schools created situations where teachers had to re-consider their existing practices and make choices regarding how ICT could be made to fit in. Speaking of the implications of this study, it should be emphasised that only through acknowledging the important role of teachers as mediators of ICT policy implementation and paying close attention to the contexts in which teachers “read” and enact policy messages is it possible to understand why technology integration in schools happens in the ways it does. Understanding the complexity and multifaceted nature of the interplay of various factors shaping teachers’ practices might lead to better policies and improved dialogue between policy makers and teachers

IMPACT OF TELEWORK ON THE PERCEIVED WORK ENVIRONMENT OF OLDER WORKERS

Telework has become a natural part of regular work life of employees who use the information communication technology (ICT). Telework has a potential to support postponing retirement for mental workers. The objective of this research was to find out interaction between senior employees’ teleworking and well-being. The main research question was – can telework improve elderly employees’ well-being? Over 100 respondents from different areas in mental work were involved in a quantitative survey. The results of a conducted survey showed that telework is exaggerated to some extent as teleworkers’ well-being (M=7.79; SD=1.28) does not diverge from non-teleworkers’ well-being (M=7.75; SD=1.40). However, telework can be neither underestimated nor taken as interchangeable with traditional work. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to telework as a different way of working with its specialties. Systematic approach to telework enables companies to employ elderly by providing diversity of work forms.JEL Codes - J14, J26, J2

Folklore in the Digital Age: Collected Essays. Foreword by Andy Ross

Online and digital cultures are among the most personally gripping effects of globalisation in our increasingly networked world. While global multimedia culture may seem to endanger traditional folklore, there is no doubt that it creates new folklore as well. Folklore in the Digital Age vividly illustrates the range of e-folklore studies in updated papers and essays from the author’s 21st-century research. The themes covered include not only the most serious issues of the day, such as the 9/11 attacks and natural disasters, but also cheerier topics, such as online dating and food culture. In these essays Professor Krawczyk-Wasilewska paints a convincing picture of digital folklore as a cultural heritage. She covers a wide range of issues from all levels of society and offers fascinating insights into how online culture affects our postmodern lives

Co-Creating Community-Based Solutions through Social Media in Estonia during the COVID-19 Pandemic

In this study, we aimed to explore and describe the prosocial behaviour of the community during the COVID-19 crisis in Estonia on Facebook, using mixed-method content analysis.This article focuses on the role of social media in co-creation in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic and the use of Facebook (FB) as a modern communication technology in times of crisis. Our goal was to learn how Facebook as a social media channel can be a tool and accelerator that allows people to find solutions to social problems in communities experiencing crises. The focus of the research is on finding solutions in co-creation for vulnerable target groups, including the elderly, people with disabilities, and other people who need support. This research expands on the role and potential of using FB as a communication platform to enhance co-creation.We used Kaun and Uldam’s (2018) model as a theoretical framework for this study. The study is characterised by a descriptive and exploratory research design. We studied the prosocial behaviour of the community on Facebook through a three-stage mixed method content analysis of existing data, including posts and comments on FB pages, using both quantitative (descriptive statistics) and qualitative (thematic analysis) data analysis methods. Our findings suggest that Facebook as a social media channel could be successfully utilised as a tool for sharing calls to action, activating citizens to co-create solutions, and disseminating results.Keywords: prosocial behaviour; co-creation; community support; Facebook; COVID-19

Consumer intent to disclose personal information in ecommerce: a comparison of Estonia and the United States

2014 Fall.An online survey conducted among participants in the US (n=248) and Estonia (n=225) examined willingness to disclose and perceived risks pertaining to disclosing personally identifying information (PII, also referred to as personal data in Europe) in ecommerce, as well as attitude toward disclosure in general, and anxiety disclosing personal data. Additionally, the study investigated how willingness to disclose and perceived risk of disclosing personal data were affected by demographic variables, trust in the Internet and trust in institutions, the Big Five personality dimensions found in the psychology literature (neuroticism, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and extraversion), and four sets of perceived shopping benefits (opportunity benefits, bargain benefits, purchase benefits, and expected privacy benefits). Despite Estonia's advanced adoption and progressive policies and practices toward the Internet, Americans were more willing to disclose, exhibited more positive attitudes, demonstrated less anxiety, and were less concerned about perceived risks. For Estonians, ecommerce experience, perceived purchase benefits, and trust in the Internet and institutions were significant predictors of willingness to disclose personal data. Americans who perceived purchase benefits were found to be the most likely to disclose PII, while Americans with lower levels of education were also more willing to disclose. The study utilized a 17-item list of potential disclosure items (name, email address, etc.) and showed these can be categorized reliably into six sub-indices: contact information, payment information, life history information, financial/medical information, work-related information, and online account information. Further, a reliable efficient, 20-item scale was developed that can be deployed in future studies investigating the Big Five personality traits. Online disclosure consciousness (ODC) was introduced as a framework to conceptualize and empirically measure the gap between one's willingness to disclose and perceived risk pertaining to the overall 17-item index used in the study, the sub-indices, and particular items. Using 7-point Likert-type measures, the results showed significant gaps among participants both within and across nations. A 5-scenario online disclosure consciousness model is presented to explain the tradeoffs involved in making a disclosure decision, with absolute willingness to disclose and absolute perceived risk on the two extremes and theoretical midpoint where the two competing motivations cancel themselves out. Changes in a person's position along the continuum are posited to be influenced by marketers' initiatives, personal experiences, and external factors. Implications for theory, consumers, marketing practice, and public policy are discussed. The findings suggest that willingness to disclose and risk aversion can and should be analyzed empirically together. Thus, the ODC model provides an alternative conceptualization to the ideas of the privacy paradox, privacy calculus, and privacy cost-benefit ratios found in the literature. The study suggests consumers have a responsibility to educate themselves about online disclosure practices and how to protect their privacy. The findings also suggest marketers and policy makers should recognize that data disclosed online are not all equally sensitive to consumers. However, fostering trust, reducing risks, and promoting benefits are essential to the future of ecommerce

Maturing International Cooperation to Address the Cyberspace Attack Attribution Problem

One of the most significant challenges to deterring attacks in cyberspace is the difficulty of identifying and attributing attacks to specific state or non-state actors. The lack of technical detection capability moves the problem into the legal realm; however, the lack of domestic and international cyberspace legislation makes the problem one of international cooperation. Past assessments have led to collective paralysis pending improved technical and legal advancements. This paper demonstrates, however, that any plausible path to meaningful defense in cyberspace must include a significant element of international cooperation and regime formation. The analytical approach diverges from past utilitarian-based assessments to understand the emerging regime, or implicit and explicit principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures, around which actor expectations are beginning to converge in the area of cyberspace attack attribution. The analysis applies a social-practice perspective of regime formation to identify meaningful normative and political recommendations. Various hypotheses of regime formation further tailor the recommendations to the current maturity level of international cooperation in this issue area. Examining international cooperation in cyberspace and methods for maturing international cooperation to establish attribution in other domains inform political mitigations to the problem of cyberspace attack attribution. Potential solutions are analyzed with respect to four recent cyberspace attacks to illustrate how improved international cooperation might address the problem. Finally, a counterfactual analysis, or thought experiment, of how these recommendations might have been applied in the case of rampant Chinese cyber espionage inform specific current and future opportunities for implementation. Although timing is difficult to predict, the growing frequency and scope of cyber attacks indicate the window of opportunity to address the problem before some form of cataclysmic event is closing