Workload-aware systems and interfaces for cognitive augmentation

In today's society, our cognition is constantly influenced by information intake, attention switching, and task interruptions. This increases the difficulty of a given task, adding to the existing workload and leading to compromised cognitive performances. The human body expresses the use of cognitive resources through physiological responses when confronted with a plethora of cognitive workload. This temporarily mobilizes additional resources to deal with the workload at the cost of accelerated mental exhaustion. We predict that recent developments in physiological sensing will increasingly create user interfaces that are aware of the user’s cognitive capacities, hence able to intervene when high or low states of cognitive workload are detected. In this thesis, we initially focus on determining opportune moments for cognitive assistance. Subsequently, we investigate suitable feedback modalities in a user-centric design process which are desirable for cognitive assistance. We present design requirements for how cognitive augmentation can be achieved using interfaces that sense cognitive workload. We then investigate different physiological sensing modalities to enable suitable real-time assessments of cognitive workload. We provide empirical evidence that the human brain is sensitive to fluctuations in cognitive resting states, hence making cognitive effort measurable. Firstly, we show that electroencephalography is a reliable modality to assess the mental workload generated during the user interface operation. Secondly, we use eye tracking to evaluate changes in eye movements and pupil dilation to quantify different workload states. The combination of machine learning and physiological sensing resulted in suitable real-time assessments of cognitive workload. The use of physiological sensing enables us to derive when cognitive augmentation is suitable. Based on our inquiries, we present applications that regulate cognitive workload in home and work settings. We deployed an assistive system in a field study to investigate the validity of our derived design requirements. Finding that workload is mitigated, we investigated how cognitive workload can be visualized to the user. We present an implementation of a biofeedback visualization that helps to improve the understanding of brain activity. A final study shows how cognitive workload measurements can be used to predict the efficiency of information intake through reading interfaces. Here, we conclude with use cases and applications which benefit from cognitive augmentation. This thesis investigates how assistive systems can be designed to implicitly sense and utilize cognitive workload for input and output. To do so, we measure cognitive workload in real-time by collecting behavioral and physiological data from users and analyze this data to support users through assistive systems that adapt their interface according to the currently measured workload. Our overall goal is to extend new and existing context-aware applications by the factor cognitive workload. We envision Workload-Aware Systems and Workload-Aware Interfaces as an extension in the context-aware paradigm. To this end, we conducted eight research inquiries during this thesis to investigate how to design and create workload-aware systems. Finally, we present our vision of future workload-aware systems and workload-aware interfaces. Due to the scarce availability of open physiological data sets, reference implementations, and methods, previous context-aware systems were limited in their ability to utilize cognitive workload for user interaction. Together with the collected data sets, we expect this thesis to pave the way for methodical and technical tools that integrate workload-awareness as a factor for context-aware systems.Tagtäglich werden unsere kognitiven Fähigkeiten durch die Verarbeitung von unzähligen Informationen in Anspruch genommen. Dies kann die Schwierigkeit einer Aufgabe durch mehr oder weniger Arbeitslast beeinflussen. Der menschliche Körper drückt die Nutzung kognitiver Ressourcen durch physiologische Reaktionen aus, wenn dieser mit kognitiver Arbeitsbelastung konfrontiert oder überfordert wird. Dadurch werden weitere Ressourcen mobilisiert, um die Arbeitsbelastung vorübergehend zu bewältigen. Wir prognostizieren, dass die derzeitige Entwicklung physiologischer Messverfahren kognitive Leistungsmessungen stets möglich machen wird, um die kognitive Arbeitslast des Nutzers jederzeit zu messen. Diese sind in der Lage, einzugreifen wenn eine zu hohe oder zu niedrige kognitive Belastung erkannt wird. Wir konzentrieren uns zunächst auf die Erkennung passender Momente für kognitive Unterstützung welche sich der gegenwärtigen kognitiven Arbeitslast bewusst sind. Anschließend untersuchen wir in einem nutzerzentrierten Designprozess geeignete Feedbackmechanismen, die zur kognitiven Assistenz beitragen. Wir präsentieren Designanforderungen, welche zeigen wie Schnittstellen eine kognitive Augmentierung durch die Messung kognitiver Arbeitslast erreichen können. Anschließend untersuchen wir verschiedene physiologische Messmodalitäten, welche Bewertungen der kognitiven Arbeitsbelastung in Realzeit ermöglichen. Zunächst validieren wir empirisch, dass das menschliche Gehirn auf kognitive Arbeitslast reagiert. Es zeigt sich, dass die Ableitung der kognitiven Arbeitsbelastung über Elektroenzephalographie eine geeignete Methode ist, um den kognitiven Anspruch neuartiger Assistenzsysteme zu evaluieren. Anschließend verwenden wir Eye-Tracking, um Veränderungen in den Augenbewegungen und dem Durchmesser der Pupille unter verschiedenen Intensitäten kognitiver Arbeitslast zu bewerten. Das Anwenden von maschinellem Lernen führt zu zuverlässigen Echtzeit-Bewertungen kognitiver Arbeitsbelastung. Auf der Grundlage der bisherigen Forschungsarbeiten stellen wir Anwendungen vor, welche die Kognition im häuslichen und beruflichen Umfeld unterstützen. Die physiologischen Messungen stellen fest, wann eine kognitive Augmentierung sich als günstig erweist. In einer Feldstudie setzen wir ein Assistenzsystem ein, um die erhobenen Designanforderungen zur Reduktion kognitiver Arbeitslast zu validieren. Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Arbeitsbelastung durch den Einsatz von Assistenzsystemen reduziert wird. Im Anschluss untersuchen wir, wie kognitive Arbeitsbelastung visualisiert werden kann. Wir stellen eine Implementierung einer Biofeedback-Visualisierung vor, die das Nutzerverständnis zum Verlauf und zur Entstehung von kognitiver Arbeitslast unterstützt. Eine abschließende Studie zeigt, wie Messungen kognitiver Arbeitslast zur Vorhersage der aktuellen Leseeffizienz benutzt werden können. Wir schließen hierbei mit einer Reihe von Applikationen ab, welche sich kognitive Arbeitslast als Eingabe zunutze machen. Die vorliegende wissenschaftliche Arbeit befasst sich mit dem Design von Assistenzsystemen, welche die kognitive Arbeitslast der Nutzer implizit erfasst und diese bei der Durchführung alltäglicher Aufgaben unterstützt. Dabei werden physiologische Daten erfasst, um Rückschlüsse in Realzeit auf die derzeitige kognitive Arbeitsbelastung zu erlauben. Anschließend werden diese Daten analysiert, um dem Nutzer strategisch zu assistieren. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die Erweiterung neuartiger und bestehender kontextbewusster Benutzerschnittstellen um den Faktor kognitive Arbeitslast. Daher werden in dieser Arbeit arbeitslastbewusste Systeme und arbeitslastbewusste Benutzerschnittstellen als eine zusätzliche Dimension innerhalb des Paradigmas kontextbewusster Systeme präsentiert. Wir stellen acht Forschungsstudien vor, um die Designanforderungen und die Implementierung von kognitiv arbeitslastbewussten Systemen zu untersuchen. Schließlich stellen wir unsere Vision von zukünftigen kognitiven arbeitslastbewussten Systemen und Benutzerschnittstellen vor. Durch die knappe Verfügbarkeit öffentlich zugänglicher Datensätze, Referenzimplementierungen, und Methoden, waren Kontextbewusste Systeme in der Auswertung kognitiver Arbeitslast bezüglich der Nutzerinteraktion limitiert. Ergänzt durch die in dieser Arbeit gesammelten Datensätze erwarten wir, dass diese Arbeit den Weg für methodische und technische Werkzeuge ebnet, welche kognitive Arbeitslast als Faktor in das Kontextbewusstsein von Computersystemen integriert

from Issue Investigation to Design Solutions

학위논문(박사) -- 서울대학교대학원 : 공과대학 산업공학과, 2021.8. 윤명환.가전제품을 포함한 현대 기술은 사용자의 삶에 혜택을 제공하지만 제조업체와 설계자의 접근성 지원 부족으로 인해 장애인 및 고령 사용자는 그 혜택으로부터 소외되었다. 여러 신 기능의 개발 및 발전은 비장애인 사용자의 삶의 질을 풍요롭게 한 것과는 반대로 이러한 기능들은 복잡도가 상향되어 장애인 및 고령 사용자의 접근성과 독립적 사용을 저해하고 이내 사용자 경험을 저하시켰을 뿐이다. 이와 같이 접근성 지원이 필요한 상용자의 사용자 경험을 수집하는 것은 생각보다 번거로운 일이다. 대상 사용자들은 민감한 개인정보상의 이유로 사용자 경험 제공을 꺼릴 수도 있고, 인터뷰나 설문조사를 수행하기에 적합한 조건이 아닐 수도 있으며, 더 나아가 소통에 어려움이 있을 수도 있다. 이와 같은 문제는 제조업체나 설계자와 같은 이해당사자와 대상 사용자 간에 장벽을 만들고, 이러한 장벽은 사용자들이 일상 제품을 사용하며 겪게 되는 문제를 온전히 이해하고 정의하는 것을 어렵게 만들어 공감의 형성이 불가능해진다. 이해당사자들은 장애가 있다는 것, 고령이 된다는 것을 경험해 보지 못 했기 때문에 그들의 사용자 경험을 잘못 해석할 수 있고, 이러한 공감의 부족은 장애인 및 고령 사용자에 대한 편견과 오해로 이어진다. 결국, 접근 가능한 제품 개발을 목표로 하는 제조사나 설계자가 이들의 불편사항 및 요구를 인지한다 해도 대상 사용자의 이러한 문제를 해결하기는 어렵거나 심지어 불가능하기도 하다. 이러한 문제로, 본 연구의 3장에서는 인터뷰와 관찰 데이터를 기반으로 가전제품 사용 맥락에 따른 네 가지 사용자 유형에 대한 여덟 종류의 퍼소나를 개발하였다. 시각장애(전맹, 저시력), 청각장애(농아, 인공 와우), 척수장애(주먹 쥔 손, 펴진 손), 고령자(할머니, 할아버지) 퍼소나는 각각 퍼소나 카드의 시나리오와 같은 형식으로 접근성 이슈를 제공하여 실 사용자와 면대면으로 만나기 어려운 이해당사자로 하여금 대상 사용자의 접근성 이슈를 파악하고 공감할 수 있도록 하는 것을 목표로 한다. 또한, 이해당사자들은 사용자 인터랙션 관점에서 장애인 및 고령 사용자의 다른 행태를 파악하고 이해할 도구가 필요하다. 본 연구의 4장에서는 위계적 작업분석(Hierarchical Task Analysis; HTA)을 수행하여 가전제품 사용 시 시간 순서에 따른 일반적 작업 구조를 제시하여 사용자의 작업 행태를 시각화 하였다. 이 구조와 함께 서블릭(Therblig)을 통해 사용자의 작업을 미시적으로 표현하였다. 서블릭은 가전제품 맥락에 맞도록 재정의하고 사용자군 별로 문제가 있는 서블릭이 파악된 경우 동작경제 원칙에 의한 설계 가이드에 따라 개선안을 제시하도록 하였다. 동작경제원칙은 사용자의 작업측면에서의 문제점과 설계측면에서의 해결안을 연관 지어 해석하는 짐을 덜어주는 역할을 해, 제안하는 접근성 도구는 접근성 평가 도구로서 큰 가치를 가진다. 마지막으로 본 연구의 5장에서는 기존 표준과 가이드라인을 수집해 설계 가이드라인을 개발하였다. 기존 표준 및 가이드라인은 여러 수치를 제공하고는 있지만 장애인 및 고령 사용자의 사용 맥락을 충분히 반영하지 못 하고 사용자의 신체 능력, 환경, 제품의 형태에 따라 적용이 어려워 실제적 활용도가 낮은 문제가 있다. 또한 접근성과 인간공학적 전문성이 부족할수록 실 적용이 어려워져 이러한 문서의 가치는 더욱 낮아질 수밖에 없다. 이에 장애인과 고령자의 사용 맥락을 반영해 가이드라인을 재정립하고 이를 기반으로 총 일곱가지의 프로토타입을 개발하였다. 총 14명의 참가자가 프로토타입을 평가하여 대상 가전제품의 접근성 향상 여부를 평가하였다. 대부분의 프로토타입은 성공적으로 접근성에 향상을 보여 설계 가이드라인의 유효성 또한 반증하였다. 또한, 본 논문에서 사용된 절차를 따라 접근성 보장 제품 설계 시 각 가이드라인의 수치를 어떤 식으로 설계에 적용하는지를 참고할 수도 있다. 본 논문의 의의는 다음과 같다. 첫 째, 본 논문은 시각장애, 청각장애, 척수장애인을 대상으로 사용자 조사를 진행하고 이를 기반으로 사용자들의 접근성 이슈를 퍼소나 형식으로 구체화하여 이해당사자가 대상 사용자와 보다 쉽게 공감할 수 있도록 하였다. 둘째, 본 논문은 접근성 연구분야에서 부족한 접근성 평가 도구를 제안하여 접근성 연구의 연구장벽을 낮추는데 기여하였다. 마지막으로 실제 접근성 향상 제품을 개발을 위한 가이드라인과 이를 기반으로 제작된 프로토타입을 실제 사용자들이 평가하도록 해 가이드라인의 실효성을 검증하였다. 전반적으로, 본 연구는 접근성 문제의 장벽을 돌파하기 위해 전반적인 제품 개발 프로세스를 적용하였으며 유니버설 디자인 관점에서 접근성 문제 해결을 위한 일련의 새로운 접근 방식으로 제안하여 사용자가 본인의 장애나 연령과 상관없이 제품 – 특히 가전제품 – 을 자유롭고 안전하게 사용하도록 하였다.Modern-day technologies - including home appliances - deliver benefits to our lives yet the lack of accessibility supports from the manufacturers and designers have forsaken a considerable number of elderly and disabled people. Unlike how the development and advancement with a variety of new functions and features enriched the quality of life for non-disabled users, it only degraded the user experience for the elderlies and disabled users since such functions and features come along with the increased complexity, which hinders not only the accessible use but also the independent use of a disabled or elderly user. Collecting user experience from the users in need of accessibility support is much more troublesome than one might think. The users may be reluctant to provide their user experience for sensitive privacy reasons, may not be in the appropriate physical conditions for interviews or surveys, or even have communication problems. Such barriers between the stakeholder and the target users do not allow the stakeholders to fully understand and define the problems these users confront every day; simply, impossible to build empathy. The lack of empathy breeds misconceptions on the elderly and disabled users, created by misinterpretation of the users’ experiences since the stakeholders have never experienced what it is like to be a disabled or elderly user. Even if manufacturers and designers who oversee developing accessible products recognize the needs and frustrations of the disabled population, it is challenging or even inaccessible for them to address these issues of their target customers. In Chapter 3, based on the interview and observation data, this study developed eight personas for four different types of disabled users under the context of home appliance usage: visually impaired (blind and low-vision), hearing impaired (deaf and cochlear implemented), spinal cord injured (opened palm and closed fist), and elderly (grandma and grandpa). Each persona provides their accessibility issues through a persona card and scenario-like explanation. Personas created in this study will help manufacturers and designers empathize with their users although they did not meet the real users face-to-face. Moreover, stakeholders need a tool to investigate how their users in need of accessibility support behave differently from non-disabled users, which provides a deeper understanding of the users’ perspectives in terms of “interaction.” In Chapter 4, this study conducted Hierarchical Task Analysis (HTA) and created general task structures of home appliances based on their product compartment and chronological usage phase. This task structure visualizes the user behavior. Combined with the task structure, therbligs expressed the user task on a micro-scale. Therbligs were redefined to fit the home appliance context and, if found problematic, there was the principle of motion economy to provide design guidance to solve the problems of corresponding therbligs. Moreover, the principle of motion economy is valuable because it reduces the burden of a researcher to convert a task-oriented problem found in terms of user behavior into a design-oriented solution. Lastly, in Chapter 5, a design guideline is developed by collecting existing standards and guidelines. Existing standards and documents related to accessibility lack a detailed explanation of real-world application, although the documentations provide various numerical values related to designs. The numbers are not directly implementable since the context-of-use of elderly or disabled users may vary by their capability, environment, and basically by the form factor of the products they use. Lower the expertise in ergonomics and accessibility less valuable the standards and guidelines will be to implement in a product design. With the design guideline developed and ideas collected from an ideation workshop, a total of seven prototypes were built. A total of 14 participants evaluated the prototype whether it enhanced the accessibility of target home appliances or not. As a result, most prototypes successfully improved the accessibility and approved the validity of design guidelines. This procedure as a case study will provide how to implement the principles and dimensional values found in the existing standards and guidelines when developing an accessible product. Overall, this study applied a whole product development cycle to breakthrough the barriers of accessibility problems and proposes it as a set of novel approaches for accessibility issues resolution based on the perspectives of universal design so that a user can freely and safely use their products – especially home appliances – regardless of their disability or age.Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Accessibility Barriers 1 1.1.1 Barriers for Users 1 1.1.2 Barriers for Stakeholders 3 1.2 Research Objectives and Study Outline 12 Chapter 2 Background 15 2.1 Target Users and Products 15 2.1.1 Target Users 15 2.1.2 Target Home Appliances and Compartments 19 2.2 Definition of Accessibility 29 2.3 Design Approach 33 2.3.1 Accessible and Universal Design 33 Chapter 3 Persona to Investigate the Accessibility Issues of Disabled and Elderly Users Under the Context of Home Appliances Usage 35 3.1 Overview 35 3.2 Methods 38 3.2.1 User Data Collection 38 3.2.2 Data Analysis for Personas 42 3.2.3 Persona Creation for Identifying Accessibility Issue 45 3.3 Persona Development 48 3.3.1 User Behaviors and Characteristics 48 3.3.2 Created Personas 53 3.4 Results and Discussion 59 3.4.1 Behaviors and Characteristics of Personas 60 3.4.2 Accessibility Issues from Personas 67 3.5 Probable Applications and Future Studies 77 Chapter 4 TAT: Therbligs as Accessibility Tool 82 4.1 Overview 82 4.1.1 Task Analysis 84 4.1.2 Therbligs and Motion Studies 86 4.1.3 Redefining Therbligs 89 4.1.4 Changes in the Principles of Motion Economy 95 4.2 Methods 102 4.2.1 Therblig-based Task Analysis 103 4.2.2 Task Evaluation 107 4.3 Results 109 4.3.1 General Task Structures 109 4.3.2 Accessibility Evaluation Results 116 4.4 Discussions 122 4.4.1 Problematic Therbligs and Related Principles of Motion Economy for Improvements 125 4.4.2 The Final Set of Therbligs for Accessibility Evaluation 133 4.4.3 New Task Design for Disabled and Elderly Users 139 4.5 Conclusion 142 Chapter 5 Accessible Home Appliance Designs : Prototyping and Design Guidelines 145 5.1 Overview 145 5.2 Ideation for accessible home appliances 148 5.2.1 Ideation Workshop 148 5.2.2 Ideation Result 153 5.3 Development of Design Guidelines and Prototypes 156 5.3.1 Design Guideline Principles 161 5.3.2 Prototyping 173 5.4 Experiment for validation 186 5.4.1 Evaluation Results 188 5.5 Discussion 197 5.6 Conclusion 201 Chapter 6 Conclusion 203 Bibliography 206 국문 초록 222 감사의 글 225 Acknowledgment 226 APPENDICES 227박

Augmented reality at the workplace : a context-aware assistive system using in-situ projection

Augmented Reality has been used for providing assistance during manual assembly tasks for more than 20 years. Due to recent improvements in sensor technology, creating context-aware Augmented Reality systems, which can detect interaction accurately, becomes possible. Additionally, the increasing amount of variants of assembled products and being able to manufacture ordered products on demand, leads to an increasing complexity for assembly tasks at industrial assembly workplaces. The resulting need for cognitive support at workplaces and the availability of robust technology enables us to address real problems by using context-aware Augmented Reality to support workers during assembly tasks. In this thesis, we explore how assistive technology can be used for cognitively supporting workers in manufacturing scenarios. By following a user-centered design process, we identify key requirements for assistive systems for both continuously supporting workers and teaching assembly steps to workers. Thereby, we analyzed three different user groups: inexperienced workers, experienced workers, and workers with cognitive impairments. Based on the identified requirements, we design a general concept for providing cognitive assistance at workplaces which can be applied to multiple scenarios. For applying the proposed concept, we present four prototypes using a combination of in-situ projection and cameras for providing feedback to workers and to sense the workers' interaction with the workplace. Two of the prototypes address a manual assembly scenario and two prototypes address an order picking scenario. For the manual assembly scenario, we apply the concept to a single workplace and an assembly cell, which connects three single assembly workplaces to each other. For the order picking scenario, we present a cart-mounted prototype using in-situ projection to display picking information directly onto the warehouse. Further, we present a user-mounted prototype, exploring the design-dimension of equipping the worker with technology rather than equipping the environment. Besides the system contribution of this thesis, we explore the benefits of the created prototypes through studies with inexperienced workers, experienced workers, and cognitively impaired workers. We show that a contour visualization of in-situ feedback is the most suitable for cognitively impaired workers. Further, these contour instructions enable the cognitively impaired workers to perform assembly tasks with a complexity of up to 96 work steps. For inexperienced workers, we show that a combination of haptic and visual error feedback is appropriate to communicate errors that were made during assembly tasks. For creating interactive instructions, we introduce and evaluate a Programming by Demonstration approach. Investigating the long-term use of in-situ instructions at manual assembly workplaces, we show that instructions adapting to the workers' cognitive needs is beneficial, as continuously presenting instructions has a negative impact on the performance of both experienced and inexperienced workers. In the order picking scenario, we show that the cart-mounted in-situ instructions have a great potential as they outperform the paper-baseline. Finally, the user-mounted prototype results in a lower perceived cognitive load. Over the course of the studies, we recognized the need for a standardized way of evaluating Augmented Reality instructions. To address this issue, we propose the General Assembly Task Model, which provides two standardized baseline tasks and a noise-free way of evaluating Augmented Reality instructions for assembly tasks. Further, based on the experience, we gained from applying our assistive system in real-world assembly scenarios, we identify eight guidelines for designing assistive systems for the workplace. In conclusion, this thesis provides a basis for understanding how in-situ projection can be used for providing cognitive support at workplaces. It identifies the strengths and weaknesses of in-situ projection for cognitive assistance regarding different user groups. Therefore, the findings of this thesis contribute to the field of using Augmented Reality at the workplace. Overall, this thesis shows that using Augmented Reality for cognitively supporting workers during manual assembly tasks and order picking tasks creates a benefit for the workers when working on cognitively demanding tasks.Seit mehr als 20 Jahren wird Augmented Reality eingesetzt, um manuelle Montagetätigkeiten zu unterstützen. Durch neue Entwicklungen in der Sensortechnologie ist es möglich, kontextsensitive Augmented-Reality-Systeme zu bauen, die Interaktionen akkurat erkennen können. Zudem führen eine zunehmende Variantenvielfalt und die Möglichkeit, bestellte Produkte erst auf Nachfrage zu produzieren, zu einer zunehmenden Komplexität an Montagearbeitsplätzen. Der daraus entstehende Bedarf für kognitive Unterstützung an Arbeitsplätzen und die Verfügbarkeit von robuster Technologie lässt uns bestehende Probleme lösen, indem wir Arbeitende während Montagearbeiten mithilfe von kontextsensitiver Augmented Reality unterstützen. In dieser Arbeit erforschen wir, wie Assistenztechnologie eingesetzt werden kann, um Arbeitende in Produktionsszenarien kognitiv zu unterstützen. Mithilfe des User-Centered-Design-Prozess identifizieren wir Schlüsselanforderungen für Assistenzsysteme, die sowohl Arbeitende kontinuierlich unterstützen als auch Arbeitenden Arbeitsschritte beibringen können. Dabei betrachten wir drei verschiedene Benutzergruppen: unerfahrene Arbeitende, erfahrene Arbeitende, und Arbeitende mit kognitiven Behinderungen. Auf Basis der erarbeiteten Schlüsselanforderungen entwerfen wir ein allgemeines Konzept für die Bereitstellung von kognitiver Assistenz an Arbeitsplätzen, welches in verschiedenen Szenarien angewandt werden kann. Wir präsentieren vier verschiedene Prototypen, in denen das vorgeschlagene Konzept implementiert wurde. Für die Prototypen verwenden wir eine Kombination von In-Situ-Projektion und Kameras, um Arbeitenden Feedback anzuzeigen und die Interaktionen der Arbeitenden am Arbeitsplatz zu erkennen. Zwei der Prototypen zielen auf ein manuelles Montageszenario ab, und zwei weitere Prototypen zielen auf ein Kommissionierszenario ab. Im manuellen Montageszenario wenden wir das Konzept an einem Einzelarbeitsplatz und einer Montagezelle, welche drei Einzelarbeitsplätze miteinander verbindet, an. Im Kommissionierszenario präsentieren wir einen Kommissionierwagen, der mithilfe von In-Situ-Projektion Informationen direkt ins Lager projiziert. Des Weiteren präsentieren wir einen tragbaren Prototypen, der anstatt der Umgebung den Arbeitenden mit Technologie ausstattet. Ein weiterer Beitrag dieser Arbeit ist die Erforschung der Vorteile der erstellten Prototypen durch Benutzerstudien mit erfahrenen Arbeitenden, unerfahrenen Arbeitenden und Arbeitende mit kognitiver Behinderung. Wir zeigen, dass eine Kontur-Visualisierung von In-Situ-Anleitungen die geeignetste Anleitungsform für Arbeitende mit kognitiven Behinderungen ist. Des Weiteren befähigen Kontur-basierte Anleitungen Arbeitende mit kognitiver Behinderung, an komplexeren Aufgaben zu arbeiten, welche bis zu 96 Arbeitsschritte beinhalten können. Für unerfahrene Arbeitende zeigen wir, dass sich eine Kombination von haptischem und visuellem Fehlerfeedback bewährt hat. Wir stellen einen Ansatz vor, der eine Programmierung von interaktiven Anleitungen durch Demonstration zulässt, und evaluieren ihn. Bezüglich der Langzeitwirkung von In-Situ-Anleitungen an manuellen Montagearbeitsplätzen zeigen wir, dass Anleitungen, die sich den kognitiven Bedürfnissen der Arbeitenden anpassen, geeignet sind, da ein kontinuierliches Präsentieren von Anleitungen einen negativen Einfluss auf die Arbeitsgeschwindigkeit von erfahrenen Arbeitenden sowohl als auch unerfahrenen Arbeitenden hat. Für das Szenario der Kommissionierung zeigen wir, dass die In-Situ-Anleitungen des Kommissionierwagens ein großes Potenzial haben, da sie zu einer schnelleren Arbeitsgeschwindigkeit führen als traditionelle Papieranleitungen. Schlussendlich führt der tragbare Prototyp zu einer subjektiv niedrigeren kognitiven Last. Während der Durchführung der Studien haben wir den Bedarf einer standardisierten Evaluierungsmethode von Augmented-Reality-Anleitungen erkannt. Deshalb schlagen wir das General Assembly Task Modell vor, welches zwei standardisierte Grundaufgaben und eine Methode zur störungsfreien Analyse von Augmented-Reality-Anleitungen für Montagearbeiten bereitstellt. Des Weiteren stellen wir auf Basis unserer Erfahrungen, die wir durch die Anwendung unseres Assistenzsystems in Montageszenarien gemacht haben, acht Richtlinien für das Gestalten von Montageassistenzsystemen vor. Zusammenfassend bietet diese Arbeit eine Basis für das Verständnis der Benutzung von In-Situ-Projektion zur Bereitstellung von kognitiver Montageassistenz. Diese Arbeit identifiziert die Stärken und Schwächen von In-Situ-Projektion für die kognitive Unterstützung verschiedener Benutzergruppen. Folglich tragen die Resultate dieser Arbeit zum Feld der Benutzung von Augmented Reality an Arbeitsplätzen bei. Insgesamt zeigt diese Arbeit, dass die Benutzung von Augmented Reality für die kognitive Unterstützung von Arbeitenden während kognitiv anspruchsvoller manueller Montagetätigkeiten und Kommissioniertätigkeiten zu einer schnelleren Arbeitsgeschwindigkeit führt

The Machinery of Democracy: Voting System Security, Accessibility, Usability, and Cost

This report is the final product of the first comprehensive, empirical analysis of electronic voting systems in the United States. It comes after nearly two years of study with many of the nations leading academics, election officials, economists, and security, usability and accessibility experts.Up until this point, there has been surprisingly little empirical study of voting systems in the areas of security, accessibility, usability, and cost. The result is that jurisdictions make purchasing decisions and adopt laws and procedures that have little to do with their overall goals.The Brennan Center analysis finds that there is not yet any perfect voting system or set of procedures. One system might be more affordable, but less accessible to members of the disabled community; certain election procedures might make the systems easier to use, but they compromise security. Election officials and community members should be aware of the trade-offs when choosing one voting system or set of procedures over another, and they should know how to improve the system they choose.Included in this full report is an executive summary of the Brennan Centers analysis of voting system security, voting system usability, as well as voting system accessibility and cost.The Brennan Center analysis of cost is in part based upon a review of voting system contracts provided by jurisdictions around the country and a cost calculator [no longer available]. The cost calculator and contracts should assist jurisdictions in determining the initial on ongoing costs of various voting systems