The Past, Present and Future of Psychedelics

This thesis is a systematic literature review that will articulate the need for psychedelics as a treatment for several mental illnesses and ailments. Starting with the origins of psychedelics used in South American religious ceremonies and their development and early trials in the mid 20th century as well as the legal battles of psychedelics in American society. Additionally, this thesis examines the chemical structure, pharmacology, and safety of psychedelics. An in-depth examination of psychedelics as a therapy for treatment-resistant depression, depression and anxiety as a result of a cancer diagnosis, nicotine addiction and alcoholism, OCD, PTSD, and cluster headaches will be conducted as well as potential therapeutic uses for treating inflammation and the possibility of using psychedelics for tissue regeneration. Present-day studies that are currently in Phase 2 and Phase 3 of trials will also be explored including the contemporary challenges psychedelics face as becoming a part of modern society and their mainstream use as a therapy for mental illnesses

Monitoring and Analysis of Novel Psychoactive Substances in Trends Databases, Surface Web and the Deep Web, with Special Interest and Geo-Mapping of the Middle East

BACKGROUND Novel or new psychoactive substances (NPS), also known as designer drugs and research chemicals, represent a relatively recent phenomenon which can be traced back to the last decade or even earlier. The growth of this phenomenon and its electronic trade (e-trade) has been logarithmic and alarming; its aftermaths are not limited to; the economy, individual and public health, or illicit drug trade. The discipline of NPS has been extensively studied since 2010. However, there are still deficits in; data from the Middle East and the developing world including Arabic countries (1), application of data science and inferential hypothesis testing (2), implementation of the principles and theories of social science (3), utilization of experimental designs including randomised controlled trials (RCT) and quasiexperimental studies (4), and ultimately the enactment of real-time web analysis and the realization of tools of knowledge discovery in databases (5). AIM AND OBJECTIVES This study will implement an innovative research approach by combining observational analyses and data science; the aim is to provide generalizable (inferential) data in relation to NPS e-commerce activities on both divisions of the web, surface and deep. The pinnacle objective is to; assess the proportional magnitude of NPS e-commerce activity in the Middle East (1), provide a thorough analysis of the e-vendors on the darknet, both globally and regionally (Middle East) (2), correlate change in trends of e-commerce with time (3), provide recommendations for future studies in relation to the ecommerce activity in the Middle East (4), and to discuss the colossal potential of data mining technologies (5). MATERIALS AND METHODS This dissertation embodies the integrative and combinatorial approach towards the investigation of the e-trade (e-commerce) of NPS; it is made of integrated studies allocated into eleven results chapters. The utilised investigative tools represent a mixed-breed of observational web analytics including; literature review (1), cross-sectional studies and surveys (2, 3), internet snapshots (4), retrospective analyses (5), and critical appraisal (6). These analyses took place in both appendices of the web (surface web and the anonymous deep web); the analyses specifically involved; Google Trends database (1), literature databases (2), drug fora (3), social communication e-media (3), news and media networks (4), Grams search engine of the deep web (5), the darknet and its e-marketplace (6), Alphabay, Agora, Valhalla, Hansa, other dedicated e-markets for NPS e-trade (7). Additional extrapolations were concluded via the use of surveys and e-surveys in a population of medical students from Iraq. The potentials for knowledge discovery in databases (KDD) were also discussed in all chapters. Each chapter was thoroughly investigated via; data science tools (I), inferential statistics and hypothesis testing (II). The latter was dependent on using the Microsoft Excel 2016, the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), and some online tools of data science. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A systematic review of approximately 600 PubMed-indexed articles of NPS literature showed; attempts of NPS research started to evolve after 2010, almost one-third of the research output (36%) was of relevance to toxicology and analytic chemistry, while reviews and cross-sectional studies were less common (15%, 18%). The analysis of the individual basis of power showed that NPS researchers, legislators, and policymakers are lagging behind, whereas terrorist possesses the highest possible power. Power scores of e-vendors scored highest in the UK, US, and eastern Europe, while being almost absent in the Middle East. The complimentary usage of PubMed, drug fora, and Google Trends was successful in extrapolating the most trending and high-risk NPS; the contribution from the Middle East to incidents of intoxications and fatalities was absent except for Israel. Deep web analysis, including the darknet emarketplace, has shown that the contribution of the Middle East never exceeded 7% of the total etrade, data were limited to; Iran, Israel, Turkey, Afghanistan, Oman, United Arab Emirates, and Saudi Arabia. Other Arabic countries included; Egypt, Morocco, and Algeria. It was interesting to observe the e-vendors of NPS operating in the Middle East were highly involved in e-trade activities in other nations, primarily; the UK, Western Europe and Scandinavia, US, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Surveys and internet snapshots unveiled the lack of awareness and very low prevalence of (ab)use of NPS within the selected Iraqi population. Captagon was highly prevalent in the Middle East, unlike NBOMe and octodrine. In summary, the contribution from the Middle East was microscopic when compared to the developed world; it did not exceed 7% of the entire NPS phenomenon e-trade. Similarly, the NPS research in the region of the Middle East can be described to be in its infancy. The overall level-of-evidence of this dissertation is assumed to be of level-2b according to the classification system imposed by the Oxford Center for Evidence-Based Medicine (2009). CONCLUSION The growth of the NPS phenomenon, including the e-commerce and its links to terrorism, are reaching unprecedented levels. Unless some reasonable efforts and ingenious upgrades of the current research methodologies, the NPS trade and e-trade will continue to prevail rendering all its counter-attempts fade into dust; these attempts are not only limited to NPS research but also into; legislative actions, policy planning, and counter-terrorism. Upgrades should affect these front lines; increasing the quality and quantity of studies in developed countries including Middle Eastern and Arabic countries (1), incorporation of efficient use of data science and advanced web analytics (2), compulsory training of data science, biostatistics, and basic neuroscience for all NPS researchers, chemists, and toxicologists (3), validation and incorporation of data mining and real-time analyses (4), inclusion of the rarely-used experimental studies including RCTs, pragmatic RCTs, and animal modelling (5), enhancement and potentiation of internet snapshot techniques (6), and full exploitation of trends databases of the surface web (7). Perhaps, the integration of real-time data mining and data crunching, and inferential data science technique will represent the climax armament to antagonise the alarming e-trade

EEG correlates of the effect of serotonergic hallucinogens in the rat

Serotonergní halucinogeny (tzv. klasická psychedelika), zahrnující psilocybin, diethylamid kyseliny lysergové (LSD), meskalin a DOB, představují skupinu psychoaktivních substancí, které u člověka výrazně ovlivňují vnímání, myšlení, emotivitu a kognitivní funkce. Všechny známé látky tohoto původu jsou agonisté serotoninových 5-HT2A receptorů a navozují rozsáhlé změny psychiky díky široké distribuci těchto receptorů v celém mozku. Již před šedesáti lety byla zpozorována podobnost mezi psychotickým stavem a stavem navozeným těmito látkami. Dnes je abnormální funkce serotonergního systému jedním z vysvětlení psychotických onemocnění a proto je serotonergních halucinogenů využíváno v animálních modelech k modelování schizofrenie. Moderní neurobiologické metody pomalu odkrývají způsoby, jakými serotoninový systém interaguje s ostatními neurotransmiterovými systémy a přispívá k tak komplexním funkcím jako je lidské vědomí. Ačkoliv změny v aktivitě mozku člověka v psychotickém stavu i stavu intoxikace psychedeliky byly do značné míry teoreticky objasněny, u zvířete experimentální důkaz zapadající do tohoto teoretického rámce doposud chybí. V první části této práce jsou shrnuty poznatky týkající se fenomenologie, neurobiologie a elektrofyziologie psychedelik. V druhé, praktické části, jsou popsány vlastní...Serotonergic hallucinogens (ie. the classic psychedelics), including psilocybin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), mescaline and DOB, represent a group of psychoactive substances that profoundly affect human perception, thinking, affectivity and cognitive functions. All known agents of such origin are agonists of the serotonin 5-HT2A receptors and induce large changes in the psyche due to the wide distribution of these receptors throughout the brain. The similarities between psychotic state and the state induced by these substances were noticed sixty years ago. Today, an abnormal function of serotonergic system is one of the explanations of psychotic disorders and serotonergic hallucinogens are therefore used in animal models as a model of schizophrenia. Modern neurobiological methods slowly reveal the ways in which serotonin system interacts with other neurotransmitter systems and contributes to such complex function as a human consciousness is. Although changes in the activity of the human brain in a psychotic state and the state of intoxication with psychedelics were largely theoretically unraveled, the animal experimental evidence fitting into this theoretical framework is still missing. The first part of this thesis summarizes the findings regarding phenomenology, neurobiology and...Katedra fyziologieDepartment of PhysiologyPřírodovědecká fakultaFaculty of Scienc

Psychedelics

Psychedelics (serotonergic hallucinogens) are powerful psychoactive substances that alter perception and mood and affect numerous cognitive processes. They are generally considered physiologically safe and do not lead to dependence or addiction. Their origin predates written history, and they were employed by early cultures in many sociocultural and ritual contexts. After the virtually contemporaneous discovery of (5R,8R)-(+)-lysergic acid-N,N-diethylamide (LSD)-25 and the identification of serotonin in the brain, early research focused intensively on the possibility that LSD and other psychedelics had a serotonergic basis for their action. Today there is a consensus that psychedelics are agonists or partial agonists at brain serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptors, with particular importance on those expressed on apical dendrites of neocortical pyramidal cells in layer V. Several useful rodent models have been developed over the years to help unravel the neurochemical correlates of serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor activation in the brain, and a variety of imaging techniques have been employed to identify key brain areas that are directly affected by psychedelics. Recent and exciting developments in the field have occurred in clinical research, where several double-blind placebo-controlled phase 2 studies of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy in patients with cancer-related psychosocial distress have demonstrated unprecedented positive relief of anxiety and depression. Two small pilot studies of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy also have shown positive benefit in treating both alcohol and nicotine addiction. Recently, blood oxygen level–dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging and magnetoencephalography have been employed for in vivo brain imaging in humans after administration of a psychedelic, and results indicate that intravenously administered psilocybin and LSD produce decreases in oscillatory power in areas of the brain’s default mode network

The "e" in rave : a profile of young ecstasy users and its implication for educators

The use of methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or Ecstasy is a phenomenon that has established itself in the widespread Rave culture. Ecstasy use causes not only physical, social and psychological problems in the development of the adolescent but may also influence his concentration and learning abilities. To prevent these problems educators should be well informed regarding current drug use trends and also be capable of assisting adolescents. Research regarding the nature of Ecstasy use and the characteristics of its users is lacking nationally. The increase in use amongst school going adolescents and young adults and the fact that there are side effects and unknown long term effects has made it imperative that educators learn as much as possible about this drug. The purpose of this research is therefore to furnish the educator with accurate information that will enable him to obtain a reference point from which assistance can be offered to the young Ecstasy user.Psychology of EducationM.Ed.(Guidance and Counselling