Technological and theoretical aspects for testing electroporation on liposomes

Recently, the use of nanometer liposomes as nanocarriers in drug delivery systems mediated by nanoelectroporation has been proposed. This technique takes advantage of the possibility of simultaneously electroporating liposomes and cell membrane with 10-nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEF) facilitating the release of the drug from the liposomes and at the same time its uptake by the cells. In this paper the design and characterization of a 10 nsPEF exposure system is presented, for liposomes electroporation purposes. The design and the characterization of the applicator have been carried out choosing an electroporation cuvette with 1 mm gap between the electrodes. The structure efficiency has been evaluated at different experimental conditions by changing the solution conductivity from 0.25 to 1.6 S/m. With the aim to analyze the influence of device performances on the liposomes electroporation, microdosimetric simulations have been performed considering liposomes of 200 and 400 nm of dimension with different inner and outer conductivity (from 0.05 to 1.6 S/m) in order to identify the voltage needed for their poration

Modulation of Biological Responses to 2 ns Electrical Stimuli by Field Reversal

Nanosecond bipolar pulse cancellation, a recently discovered Phenomenon, is modulation of the effects of a unipolar electric pulse exposure by a second pulse of opposite polarity. This attenuation of biological response by reversal of the electric field direction has been reported with pulse durations from 60 ns to 900 ns for a wide range of endpoints, and it is not observed with conventional electroporation pulses of much longer duration (\u3e 100 mu s) where pulses are additive regardless of polarity. The most plausible proposed mechanisms involve the field-driven migration of ions to and from the membrane interface (accelerated membrane discharge). Here we report 2 ns bipolar pulse cancellation, extending the scale of previously published results down to the time required to construct the permeabilizing lipid electropores observed in molecular simulations. We add new cancellation endpoints, and we describe new bipolar pulse effects that are distinct from cancellation. This new data, which includes transport of cationic and anionic permeability indicators, fluorescence of membrane labels, and patterns of entry into permeabilized cells, is not readily explained by the accelerated discharge mechanism. We suggest that multi-step processes that involve first charged species movement and then responses of cellular homeostasis and repair mechanisms are more likely to explain the broad range of reported results

Ultra-Low Intensity Post-Pulse Affects Cellular Responses Caused by Nanosecond Pulsed Electric Fields

High-intensity nanosecond pulse electric fields (nsPEF) can preferentially induce various effects, most notably regulated cell death and tumor elimination. These effects have almost exclusively been shown to be associated with nsPEF waveforms defined by pulse duration, rise time, amplitude (electric field), and pulse number. Other factors, such as low-intensity post-pulse waveform, have been completely overlooked. In this study, we show that post-pulse waveforms can alter the cell responses produced by the primary pulse waveform and can even elicit unique cellular responses, despite the primary pulse waveform being nearly identical. We employed two commonly used pulse generator designs, namely the Blumlein line (BL) and the pulse forming line (PFL), both featuring nearly identical 100 ns pulse durations, to investigate various cellular effects. Although the primary pulse waveforms were nearly identical in electric field and frequency distribution, the post-pulses differed between the two designs. The BL’s post-pulse was relatively long-lasting (~50 µs) and had an opposite polarity to the main pulse, whereas the PFL’s post-pulse was much shorter (~2 µs) and had the same polarity as the main pulse. Both post-pulse amplitudes were less than 5% of the main pulse, but the different post-pulses caused distinctly different cellular responses. The thresholds for dissipation of the mitochondrial membrane potential, loss of viability, and increase in plasma membrane PI permeability all occurred at lower pulsing numbers for the PFL than the BL, while mitochondrial reactive oxygen species generation occurred at similar pulsing numbers for both pulser designs. The PFL decreased spare respiratory capacity (SRC), whereas the BL increased SRC. Only the PFL caused a biphasic effect on trans-plasma membrane electron transport (tPMET). These studies demonstrate, for the first time, that conditions resulting from low post-pulse intensity charging have a significant impact on cell responses and should be considered when comparing the results from similar pulse waveforms

Nanomedicine applications mediated by electromagnetic fields

Recently, the introduction of nanotechnologies into medical applications has become more frequent due to the growing of several diseases originating from alteration of biological processes at molecular and nanoscale level (e.g. mutated genes, cell malfunction due to viruses or bacteria). The nanomedicine combines the innovation of the nanotechnology materials (shape and size of nm scale) to health care, providing new promising techniques for the diagnosis, the prevention, the tissue regeneration and therapeutic fields. Disorders like cancer, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s disease, cardiovascular problems or inflammatory diseases are serious challenges to be dealt with. For this reason researches are focusing their attention to the nanomaterials unique properties [Murty et al., 2013, Xia et al., 2009]. The progress in nanomedicine ranges from nanoparticles for molecular diagnostics, imaging and therapy to integrated medical nanosystems [Nune et al., 2009, Shi, 2009] to act at the cellular level inside the body. For a recent review on challenges, opportunities, and clinical applications in nanomedicine an interesting review is the one of Wicki et al. [Wicki et al., 2015]. Despite the concerns raised by the authors in their review, the expert opinion on clinical opportunities finds a generalized consensus on stimuli-responsive systems for targeting the compound (drug, gene, biomolecule) at the site of interest and on the use of lipid based nanosystems for the biocompatible platform to be used in clinical trials. In this scenario is placed the main activity of this Ph.D. thesis whose aim is to provide a multiscale and multidisciplinary approach to demonstrate the capability to activate lipid-based nanosystems by means of electromagnetic fields (EMFs). Specifically, the attention will be focused, on a first part, on the liposome-based systems mediated by EMF to provide a proof-of-concept of EMF stimuli-response systems for applications of drug delivery. This aspect will be approached both form a theoretic, technological and experimental point of view. Moreover, because proteins are considered a fundamental pattern as bio-sensors for signaling cell processes, a molecular dynamics simulation approach will be provided to study the interaction mechanisms between EMFs and proteins structures for potential protein activation

Effets des champs électriques pulsés milli et nanosecondes sur cellules et tissus

L'électroperméabilisation est une technique permettant, entre autre, l'entrée de molécules cytotoxiques dans les tumeurs. Elle consiste en la perméabilisation transitoire de la membrane plasmique suite à l'application de champs électriques pulsés. Certaines conditions électriques permettent le transfert de gène, ouvrant le champ d'application de la technique à la thérapie génique. Cette thèse s'est intéressée à étudier les effets des champs électriques sur cellules et tissus, dans le cas de l'électro-transfert de gène. En effet, la compréhension mécanistique de ce transfert est indispensable à l'optimisation de la technique pour les futures applications cliniques. Dans ce contexte, nous nous sommes attachés à étudier les 3 barrières rencontrées par le gène lors de son transfert, à savoir la complexité de l'environnement multicellulaire au niveau du tissu, la membrane plasmique et l'enveloppe nucléaire au niveau de la cellule. i) L'efficacité de l'electrotransfer de gène a été étudié sur le modèle de tumeur in vitro/ex vivo dit sphéroïde. Dans un premier temps ce modèle a été validé pour l'étude de l'électrotransfection et dans un deuxième temps les raisons de l'absence d'efficacité en structure tissulaire ont été mises en évidence et l'optimisation de la technique a été amorcée. ii) Une deuxième partie a été dédiée à l'étude nano-mécanique des cellules à l'échelle de la membrane plasmique par microscopie à force atomique. La microscopie à force atomique a été utilisée afin d'imager et mesurer par spectroscopie de force l'effet de l'électroperméabilisation sur la membrane plasmique. Nous avons imagé la perturbation membranaire et mesuré une diminution d'élasticité membranaire suivant l'application des champs électriques. Ce phénomène a été relié aux effets secondaires de l'électroperméabilisation affectant l'actine corticale. iii) Une dernière partie s'est intéressée aux effets des nanopulses. Ces impulsions très courtes (ns) et intenses (plusieurs kV/cm) représentent la nouvelle génération d'impulsions, dont les effets sont encore peu décrits, mais pourraient permettre une déstabilisation spécifique de l'enveloppe des organelles. L'impact de ses impulsions nanosecondes sur la membrane ont été analysée par Patch-Clamp pour déterminer l'implication du cytosquelette d'actine dans la forme des nanopores créés. Dans un deuxième temps leur impact sur l'enveloppe nucléaire a été étudié, dans le but de déterminer d'éventuels effets néfastes sur le fonctionnement cellulaire, et la potentielle augmentation de transfection résultant d'une déstabilisation de la deuxième barrière rencontré par le gène lors de son transfert. Il est montré que l'actine ne joue pas de rôle dans la formation des nanopores, et que les impulsions nanosecondes ne permettent pas d'augmenter l'efficacité de transfection. En conclusion ces travaux ont apporté de nouveaux éléments dans la compréhension du mécanisme d'électroporation et des barrières au transfert de gène. Des protocoles, modèles, et outils ont été mis en place et sont aujourd'hui validés et disponibles pour une investigation poussée des effets des champs électriques sur le vivantElectropermeabilization is a physical technique first developed to transfer cytotoxic drugs in tumor. It consists in the transient permeabilization of the plasma membrane following electric field application. In specific electric conditions using long pulses of several milliseconds, the membrane destabilization can allow transferring plasmid DNA into the cell, thus allowing the development of gene therapy. For now, one clinical trial has been published using gene eletro-transfer and several others are ongoing. However the efficiency of the technique remains low compared to other transfer methods. This thesis gets interested in how pulsed electric fields affect cell membranes, in the concrete situation of gene transfer by electroporation. The comprehension of electro-gene transfer process need to be well understood in order to optimize it. In this context, we focus on the 3 barriers that DNA is confronted to during its transfer: first at the cell level: plasma membrane and nuclear envelope, second at the tissue level: the complexity of a multicellular environment. i) We first studied the efficiency of gene transfer on multicellular spheroid model. This work allowed the validation of this model for electro-transfection study, and the further optimization of the technique by raising some of the failures encountered in gene transfer in tissue. ii) The second part of the work has been dedicated to study plasma membrane destabilization due to electroporation by Atomic Force Microscopy. We used both innovating imaging modes and spectroscopy modes to analyze the effects on living cells, which resulted in the measurement of a decrease in elasticity, linked to side effects of electric fields on actin cytoskeleton destabilization. iii) The last part has been dedicated to the effects of nanopulses (nsEP) on both plasma membrane and the second barrier encountered by gene during its transfer, namely nuclear envelope. The effects of these very short (ns) and intense (several kV/cm) pulses have been indeed shown to affect both cell membrane and internal envelope (organelles ones). We first study their effect on membrane using patch-clamp to discriminate in the implication of actin cytoskeleton in nanopores formation. We secondly aimed to study how these nanopulses affect the special structure that is nuclear envelope during gene transfer, for validating their potential use on humans, and their possible role in optimization for gene transfer. P-clamp study revealed that actin is not involved in nanopores formation, and gene transfer one that nsEP do not affect positively transfection efficiency. Altogether this thesis brings new insights in electropermeabilization mecanisms understanding and barriers for gene transfer in tissue. Methods, models and tools have been set and validated. They are now usable for investigating electric field effect on living organism

Etude de la perméabilisation de la membrane plasmique et des membranes des organites cellulaires par des agents chimiques et physiques

It is possible to permeabilize the cellular plasma membrane by using chemical agents (as polyethylen glycols or diméthylsulfoxyde) or physical agents (as ulstrasounds or electric pulses). This permeabilization can be reversible or not, meaning that after the permeabilization, the membrane recovers its integrity and its hemi-permeable properties. These techniques can be used for the uptake of medicines or nucleic acids or to generate cellular fusions. A recent approach, the molecular dynamics, uses numerical simulations to predict the effects of permeabilizing agents at the molecular scale, allowed generating of new data to understand the molecular mechanisms that are not completely known yet.The pulses so called “classical” in electropermeabilization, from the range of the ten of milliseconds to the hundred of microseconds and with a field amplitude in the range of 100 kV/m, can only permeabilize the plasma membrane. However, more recently, shorter pulses, so called nanopulses (few nanosecondes) and with an higher field amplitude (in the range of 10 MV/m) have been used and allow to affect also cellular organelles membranes.This thesis is, in a first time, about the permeabilizing effects of a chemical gent (the diméthylsulfoxyde, DMSO) by comparing predictive models from molecular dynamics with experiments in vitro on cells. The numerical model predicts three regimes of action depending on the DMSO concentration. Used at low concentration, there is a plasma membrane deformation. The use of an intermediate concentration lead to membrane pores formation and higher DMSO concentrations resulted in membrane destruction. The experiments done in vitro on cells confirmed these results using the following of permeabilization markers. This study has been compared to permeabilization due to a physical agent (electric pulses).Secondly, it is about the development and the use of a new cell exposure device for nanopulses that permit to apply very high electric fields and to observe induced cellular effects simultaneously by microscopy.To finish, this device has been used with nanopulses to generate calcium peaks in mesenchymal stem cells that are presenting spontaneous calcium oscillations in correlation to their differentiation state.. These induced peaks are due to the release of the calcium stored in organelles and/or to plasma membrane permeabilization leading to a intramembrane calcium flux establishment. It is also possible to use microsecond pulses to generate calcium peaks in these cells. In this case, the calcium peaks are due to the plasma membrane permeabilization . By changing the amplitude of the applied electric fields and the presence or the absence of external calcium, it is possible to manipulate cytosolic calcium concentrations by mobilizing internal or external calcium. One feature of these new tools is to be triggered and stopped instantly without reminiscence, unlike chemical molecules permitting the production of calcium peaks. These tools could therefore lead to a better understanding of the involvement of calcium in mechanisms such as differentiation, migration or fertilization.Il est possible de perméabiliser la membrane plasmique des cellules par des agents chimiques (tels que les polyéthylènes glycols ou le diméthylsulfoxyde) ou par des agents physiques (tels que les ultrasons ou les impulsions électriques). Cette perméabilisation peut être réversible ou non, ce qui signifie qu’après la perméabilisation, la membrane retrouve son intégrité et ses propriétés d’hémi-perméabilité ou pas. Ces techniques peuvent être utilisées pour faire rentrer des médicaments ou des acides nucléiques dans les cellules ou pour générer des fusions cellulaires. Une approche récente, la dynamique moléculaire, utilise des simulations numériques pour prédire les effets des agents perméabilisants sur les membranes à l’échelle moléculaire, et permet d’apporter de nouvelles données pour comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires, encore peu connus à ce jour.Les impulsions dites « classiques » en électroperméabilisation, de l’ordre de la dizaine de millisecondes à la centaine de microsecondes et d’amplitude de champ de l’ordre de 100 kV/m, perméabilisent la membrane plasmique uniquement. Cependant, récemment, des impulsions plus courtes, dites impulsions nanoseconde (quelques nanosecondes) et de plus grande amplitude de champ (de l’ordre de 10 MV/m) ont été utilisées et permettent d’affecter également les membranes des organites cellulaires. Les travaux de cette thèse portent dans un premier temps sur les effets perméabilisants d’un agent chimique (le diméthylsulfoxyde, DMSO) en comparant les modèles prédictifs de la dynamique moléculaire avec des expériences in vitro sur des cellules. Le modèle numérique prédit trois régimes d’action en fonction de la concentration du DMSO. Utilisé à faible concentration, il y a déformation de la membrane plasmique. L’utilisation d’une concentration intermédiaire entraîne la formation de pores membranaires et les fortes concentrations de DMSO ont pour conséquence la destruction de la membrane. Les expériences in vitro faites sur des cellules ont confirmé ces résultats en suivant l’entrée de marqueurs de perméabilisation. Cette étude a été comparée avec la perméabilisation par un agent physique (les impulsions électriques). Dans un deuxième temps, ces travaux traitent du développement et de l’utilisation d’un nouveau dispositif d’exposition des cellules aux impulsions nanoseconde qui permet d’appliquer des champs électriques très élevés et d’observer par microscopie leurs au niveau cellulaire. Pour finir, ce dispositif a été utilisé avec des impulsions nanoseconde pour générer des pics calciques dans de cellules souches mésenchymateuses qui présentent des oscillations calciques spontanées liées à leur état de différenciation. Ces pics induits sont dus à la libération de calcium stocké dans les organites et/ou à la perméabilisation de la membrane plasmique permettant l’établissement d’un flux de calcium intramembranaire. Il est aussi possible d’utiliser des impulsions microseconde pour générer des pics calciques dans ces cellules. Dans ce cas, les pics calciques ne sont dus qu’à la perméabilisation de la membrane plasmique. En jouant sur l’amplitude des champs électriques appliqués et sur la présence ou l’absence de calcium externe, il est possible de manipuler les concentrations calciques cytosoliques en mobilisant le calcium interne ou externe. Une des particularités de ces nouveaux outils est de pouvoir être déclenchés et arrêtés instantanément, sans réminiscence, contrairement aux molécules chimiques permettant de produire des pics calciques. Ces outils pourraient donc permettre de mieux comprendre l’implication du calcium dans des mécanismes comme la différenciation, la migration ou la fécondation

Characterization of a 50-Ω Exposure Setup for High-Voltage Nanosecond Pulsed Electric Field Bioexperiments

International audienceAn exposure system for a nanosecond pulsed electric field is presented and completely characterized in this paper. It is composed of a high-voltage generator and an applicator: the biological cuvette. The applied pulses have high intensities (up to 5 kV), short durations (3 and 10 ns), and different shapes (square, bipolar). A frequency characterization of the cuvette is carried out based on both an analytical model and experimental measurements (S11) in order to determine its matching bandwidth. High voltage measurements in the time domain are performed. Results show that the cuvette is well adapted to 10-ns pulses and limited to those of 3 ns. The rise/fall times of the pulses should not be less than 1.5 ns. In addition, numerical calculation providing voltage distribution within the cuvette is performed using an in-house finite-difference time-domain code. A good level of voltage homogeneity across the cuvette electrodes is obtained, as well as consistency with experimental data for all the applied pulses