'Go Up', 'Go West', and 'Go Out': Changing Industrial Policy and Firm Strategies in China’s Apparel Industry

The rise of China's export-oriented apparel industry since the 1990s has been driven largely by global sourcing practices intent on capturing the cost advantages of a development model predicated, in part, on unskilled or semi-skilled migratory labor flows linking western and central labor pools to coastal production sites. Until recently, the dominance of this model of development has fueled growth in low-wage employment in the coastal regions and has provided few opportunities for economic and social upgrading. Since the early 2000s, coastal factories have increasingly had to confront difficulties generated by the increasing social and economic costs of this regionally concentrated low wage growth model. This research focuses on the role of the apparel industry in this process. It documents the major changes in organization and geographies of economic activity in the industry, and demonstrates how the central and local state, domestic and international capital, and Chinese and other Asian workers are shaping the changing organization and geography of China's apparel industry. By focusing on a case study from China and a firm-level database on China's apparel industry, the research pays particular attention to firm strategies and state policies that have arisen in response to upward pressure on wages from workers, increased materials and energy costs, and competition from other low-cost producers in Asia.Doctor of Philosoph

The Legal, Administrative and Managing Framework for Spatial Policy, Planning and Land-Use. Interdependence, Barriers and Directions of Change

The book aims to explore the legal and administrative aspects of spatial governance and the challenges that their interaction entails. It does this through a number of chapters focusing on case studies located in different geographical areas of Europe and beyond. By doing this, the editors shed light on a set of challenges that emerge around the world at the intersection between the legal and administrative spheres during the governance and planning of territorial phenomena. The issues addressed in the various chapters highlight how spatial planning activities continue to face serious challenges that have not yet been satisfactorily addressed. In more detail, a correlation emerges between the legal regulations that allow and shape spatial-planning activities and the socio-economic and territorial challenges that those activities should tackle. This is often a consequence of the path-dependent influence of the traditional administrative and spatial planning configuration, which presents an inertial resistance to change that is hard to overcome. A similar situation arises concerning the mismatch between the boundaries of the existing administrative units and the extent of territorial phenomena, with a system of judicial–territorial administration that does not always coincide with the boundaries of the fundamental administrative division of a country, leading to an overall deterioration of the conditions in which all actors involved in spatial development operate

An empirical-institutional analysis of factors affecting the entrepreneurial university

The university is an institution with a long history and, over the course of the centuries, it has gone through several stages in its development (Martinelli et al., 2008). While initially conceived as an institution with a teaching ‘mission’, the university later adopted a knowledge generation function (research). In recent years, the idea has emerged that the university is assuming a ‘third mission’, contributing to society and economic development more directly; turning the university into an Entrepreneurial University. But, what constitutes this Entrepreneurial University? There are several views on what constitutes an Entrepreneurial University, but there is still a lack of agreement about its core components (Rothaermel et al., 2007, Guerrero and Urbano, 2010). Indeed, in the last years, the domain Entrepreneurial University has received increased attention from scholars (O'Shea et al., 2004, Guerrero et al., 2011). In particular, there are some theoretical models, e.g. Clark (1998), Sporn (2001), Etzkowitz (2004), O'Shea et al. (2007), Peterka (2008), Guerrero and Urbano (2010), Salamzadeh et al. (2011), Gibb (2012), European Commission (2012) and Mavi (2014), which are focused on the explanation of the Entrepreneurial University phenomenon. However, little is known about the factors that contribute to the emergence of these Entrepreneurial University (Rothaermel et al., 2007, Guerrero et al., 2011). Moreover, there is a lack of empirical studies which analyse the influence of these factors (Yusof et al., 2012), offering a great opportunity to make important contributions in this field. Thus, the main purpose of this research was to develop an empirical-institutional analysis of the factors that affects the Entrepreneurial University. That for, an Entrepreneurial University model was developed and empirically tested; analysing the influence of external environment factors, internal organisation factors and entrepreneurship support mechanisms on Entrepreneurial University’s results. With this objective in mind, this research study adopted a quantitative approach. Besides, the research strategy was based on a self-devised survey and the unit of analysis was the university itself; specifically, European universities that were fostering universities’ third mission, the economic and social development.Unibertsitatea historia luzea duen erakunde bat da, zeinek mendeetan zehar hainbat fase ezberdin izan dituen (Martinelli et al., 2008). Hasieran batetan irakaskuntza “misio” bakar bezala izan bazuen ere, geroago unibertsitateak jakintza sortzeko (ikerketako) rola hartu zuen; “bigarren misio” bezala. Gainera, azken urteetan, unibertsitate honek "hirugarren misio" bat garatu du, gizarte eta garapen ekonomikoan zuzenean laguntzea; Unibertsitate Ekintzaile batetan bilakatuz. Baina zerk osatzen du Unibertsitate Ekintzaile hau? Badira Unibertsitate Ekintzaile batean ikuspegi ezberdinak, baina ez dago adostasunik bere osagai nagusien inguruan (Rothaermel et al., 2007, Guerrero and Urbano, 2010). Izan ere, azken urteotan, Unibertsitate Ekintzaileak arreta handia jaso du ikertzaileen aldetik (O'Shea et al., 2004, Guerrero et al., 2011). Hain zuzen ere, eredu teoriko batzuk garatu dira, besteak beste Clark (1998), Sporn (2001), Etzkowitz (2004), O'Shea et al. (2007), Peterka (2008), Guerrero and Urbano (2010), Salamzadeh et al. (2011), Gibb (2012), European Commission (2012) eta Mavi (2014). Hala ere, oraindik gutxi aztertu da unibertsitate honen sorreran laguntzen duten faktoreen ezagutzaren inguruan (Rothaermel et al., 2007, Guerrero et al., 2011). Ikerketa enpirikoen eza ageri da faktore horien eraginen inguruan, arlo honetan ekarpen garrantzitsuak egiteko aukera handi bat eskainiz. Beraz, ikerketa honen helburu nagusia Unibertsitate Ekintzaile baten eragiten duten faktoreen azterketa enpiriko-instituzionala egitean datza. Horretarako, Unibertsitate Ekintzaile eredu bat garatu eta enpirikoki egiaztatu da; non unibertsitatearen kanpoko inguruneak, unibertsitatearen barruko ezaugarriek eta ekintzailetza bultzatzeko mekanismoek Unibertsitate Ekintzaileen emaitzen gainean duten eragina aztertzen den. Aurreko helburua betetzeko, ikerketa honek ikuspegi kuantitatiboa jarraitu du. Gainera, ikerketa estrategia bezala inkesta erabili da eta analisi unitatea unibertsitatea bera izan da; zehazki, unibertsitatearen hirugarren misioa bultzatzen duten Europar unibertsitateak.La universidad es una institución con una larga historia y, en el transcurso de los siglos, ha pasado por varias etapas (Martinelli et al., 2008). Aunque fue concebida inicialmente como una institución que tenía la enseñanza como única "misión", la universidad más tarde adoptó la función de generación de conocimiento (investigación); adquiriendo una “segunda misión”. Además, en los últimos años, ha surgido la idea de que la universidad ha adquirido una "tercera misión", contribuyendo a la sociedad y al desarrollo económico de manera más directa; convirtiendo la universidad en una Universidad Emprendedora. Pero, ¿qué constituye esta Universidad Emprendedora? Hay diversos puntos de vista sobre lo que constituye una Universidad Emprendedora, pero todavía existe una falta de consenso sobre sus componentes principales (Rothaermel et al., 2007, Guerrero and Urbano, 2010). De hecho, en los últimos años, la Universidad Emprendedora ha recibido una mayor atención por parte de los investigadores (O'Shea et al., 2004, Guerrero et al., 2011). En particular, hay algunos modelos teóricos, por ejemplo, Clark (1998), Sporn (2001), Etzkowitz (2004), O'Shea et al. (2007), Peterka (2008), Guerrero and Urbano (2010), Salamzadeh et al. (2011), Gibb (2012), European Commission (2012) and Mavi (2014), que se centran en la explicación del fenómeno de Universidad Emprendedora. Sin embargo, se sabe poco acerca de los factores que contribuyen a la aparición de esta universidad (Rothaermel et al., 2007, Guerrero et al., 2011). Existe una falta de investigaciones empíricas que analicen la influencia de estos factores, ofreciendo una gran oportunidad de hacer importantes contribuciones en este campo. Por lo tanto, el objetivo principal de esta investigación es realizar un análisis empírico-institucional de los factores que afectan a la Universidad Emprendedora. Para ello, se ha desarrollado y testeado empíricamente un modelo de Universidad Emprendedora que analiza la influencia del entorno externo a la universidad, de las características internas de la propia universidad y de los mecanismos de apoyo para el emprendimiento sobre los resultados de la Universidad Emprendedora. Con este objetivo en mente, esta tesis ha adoptado un enfoque cuantitativo. Por otra parte, la estrategia de investigación se ha basado en una encuesta y la unidad de análisis fue la propia universidad; específicamente, las universidades europeas que fomentaban la tercera misión de la universidad, el desarrollo económico y social

The Meetings Incentives Conferences and Events Industry in Hang Zhou, China: Residents' Perceptions of Policies

This thesis was initiated by the occurrence of the 2006 Hang Zhou World Leisure Expo. Hang Zhou is the author's home city, and thus the Expo was of interest, and from this interest came the idea of conducting research into residents' perceptions of the impacts of the 2006 Expo and the more general impacts of Hang Zhou's Meetings, Incentives, Conferences and Exhibitions (MICE) policies. As in other Chinese cities, these policies are primarily determined by the Municipal Government with comparatively little reference to residents. The researcher has found very little prior research into the subject of resident perceptions of MICE, even though, as described in the thesis, there has been increasing competition between cities as each seeks to build conference centres and attract business for those centres. Much of the literature reviewed was based on research into western cases, and in the final chapter reference is made to potential differences between China and the locations of this other research. After a literature review, the author undertook a qualitative study by conducting interviews with 40 respondents to both elicit their views and determine items for a subsequent quantitative study based on self completed questionnaires. After 5 months, a sample of just over 400 usable responses had been collected. The design of the questionnaire permitted discriminant analysis to be used, and thus in addition to the use of t-tests and ANOVA, factor, cluster, regression and path analysis were all used. Given the lack of previous research within China, the main focus of the research was descriptive and exploratory in nature, but the initial results permitted the development of a potential set of causal relationships that are summarised in the main text as Figure 4.3. This permitted a series of four propositions to be examined. It is to be noted that the term ‗proposition' is used rather than ‗hypothesis'. The latter term implies quantifiable relationships are thought to exist and that can be tested. The literature review reveals a deficiency generally about residents' perceptions of MICE and very specifically almost nothing about the Chinese situation, so at this stage it is proposed that a relationship between residents and MICE, but no specific hypothesis of quantifiable relationships exist to be tested. These were: Proposition One Socio-demographic variables impact on perceptions of MICE at the city and personal level, and on evaluations of Hang Zhou's MICE policy. In this respect, generally, it was found that socio- ii demographics were not discriminating variables, and only employment status and a past history of MICE attendance had some role of significance. Proposition Two There will be differences between residents' perceptions of the impacts of MICE policies when asked to consider (a) impacts in Hang Zhou generally, and (b) impacts on personal daily life. This was found to be generally true, and generally respondents were supportive of MICE policies that generated benefits for the city as a whole even when they were either not affected personally, or those personal impacts such as traffic congestion, were negative. Proposition Three There will exist differences in perceptions that can be caught in psychometric measurements that will enable different clusters to be discerned, whereby some will be supportive of MICE policies and others less so - such differences being determined by the evaluations of social and environmental costs as against economic gains. In short, there is an inherent tension between the economic, social and environmental within the current state of Hang Zhou as a developing city in a developing nation. This proved to be the case. Proposition Four A history of past attendance at MICE will be a variable that shapes support for MICE development and evaluations of the MICE policy. This was partially supported. While distinct factors, clusters and the role of past attendance were found, the overall model proposed in chapter four, whereby a mix of civic advantages and personal impacts were thought to generate evaluations of MICE policies, was not wholly supported by path analysis. Goodness of fit measures failed to achieve figures of 0.9, although individual components of the model did achieve this. Reasons for this were thought to exist in the developmental nature of the MICE industry in Hang Zhou, and possibly in China as a whole, and these considerations are discussed in the final chapter

China's Business Reforms

China's recent economic reforms have led to impressive growth, and an unprecedented enthusiasm for establishing foreign enterprises in China. Since 1993, China has been the second largest recipient of foreign direct investment in the world and is now considered to be the world's third biggest economy. Its greater economic integration with the rest of the world, especially since its accession to the World Trade Organisation (WTO), has further accelerated its market-oriented economic reforms. China is now opening its protected markets and beginning to submit to the rule of international law. This ongoing transition and increasing participation in the world economy has resulted in significant changes in human resource management and social welfare practices in China's enterprises. The book examines the key areas, all of which are linked, where China is grappling with institutional reforms as it opens up to the outside world: state-owned enterprise reform, capital markets and financial reform, human resources and labour market reform, social welfare reform, and China's accession to the WTO and the growth of the private sector

A Study of Shanghai and Hong Kong as International financial centres - a review of their developments and attributable factors

The development of an international financial centre has long been an interesting topic to economists, researchers and policy makers. Understanding the development process and the critical success factors helps much in formulating the suitable strategic development plan for the city and more efficient allocation of resources. Among the various international cities or financial centres, the development dynamics of Hong Kong and Shanghai are of high interest to many researchers not only due to the fast emerging growth of the Chinese economy and its influence on the world economy, but also due to the different economic development path of these two places. Using Hong Kong and Shanghai as examples, this paper reviewed and assessed how closely the link between academic literatures, such as Supply and Demand Theory (Smith 1776) , Location Theories (Thunen 1826, Weber 1969, Losch 1954) and Central Place Theory (Christaller 1966, Crocco, Calvante and Castro 2006), Urban Economic Growth Theory (Jacob 1975), Economies of scale (Rosenthal and Strange 2001), Self-reinforcing (or Cumulative Causation Theory) (Pagano et al 2002), Regulations and Prudential Supervision, and Resources based view (Barney 1991), etc., on this topic against the actual historical development of these two places. A survey was constructed to identify from perception of finance industry practitioners the most important key success factors that contribute to the development of these two places as international finance centres. The six most important factors identified are (1) Political Stability; (2) Infrastructure; (3) Regulation and Prudential Supervision; (4) Legal / accounting / governance systems; (5) Market Openness; and (6) Labour supply & quality. Comparing the two places, the survey also revealed that Hong Kong, in general, was perceived to have better infrastructure, financial market regulations, quality of human resources, economic environment and political environment & government support than the Shanghai counterpart. Compared with Hong Kong, Shanghai was still lacking behind in the development stage of becoming an international finance centre, though it was catching up fast. Looking forward, for either or both Hong Kong and/or Shanghai to further strengthen their status as international financial centres, it will to a large extent hinge on how well the policy makers of these two places can further enhance these key success factors. The paper covered a discussion of the future prospects of Hong Kong and Shanghai and at the end of it, various directions of future research were recommended