Soccer : physical characteristics, physical demands of match-play and effective physical conditioning

The overall purpose of this thesis was to examine the physical aspects of high performance soccer. As such, four interrelated studies were designed to pursue this purpose. Each study was designed to overcome certain distinct methodological limitations of previous science and football (soccer) research and build upon existing research. The research designs for each of the four studies were methodologically different and progressed from previous research design incorporating data collected and analysed from text and internet sources, computerised video-analysis of interactive televised material and combined performance and laboratory assessments. In the following section the purpose of each study included in this thesis is provided and the rationale underpinning the selection of each research design is explained. Study 1: Analysis of Age, Stature, Body Mass, BNH and Quality of Elite Soccer Players from four European Leagues For many sports, there are specific physical characteristics that indicate suitability for, or potential to compete in that sport at the highest level. Various anthropometric characteristics of athletes have been shown to be reasonable predictors for participation at the highest level in sports such as swimming (Ackland et al., 1993), basketball, rugby league and American football (Norton and Olds, 2000). Surprisingly, there is no research available exploring these characteristics in soccer, particularly within the elite European soccer. It might well be that the recent changes in demands in soccer( Williams et al., 1999) PhD Thesis 6 Jonathan R- Bloomfield have been accompanied by physical characteristic changes in soccer players that have been of greater magnitude than that of the normal population. This is an important issue because even small changes in these physical characteristics of players could result in a large reduction in the pool of people to draw from in the general population who have the suitable physical characteristics to be successful in soccer (Olds, 2001). Furthermore, the comparison of players in different leagues and in different positions might provide some valuable information regarding the different demands placed on soccer players in different leagues (Reilly et al, 2000a; Rienzi et al, 2000; Strudwick et al., 2002). It is well documented that different positions in soccer constitute various different demands. Such findings suggest heterogeneity in physical characteristics that might be important for success in particular positions in soccer (Strudwick et al., 2002). The first aim of the present study was to investigate whether there are physical differences (age, stature, body mass, body mass index) between players in different positions in four European soccer leagues. This will also provide information into the diversity in playing style as well as the variation in what is being valued in soccer players in the various countries. This results in valuable information for the adaptation of different physical conditioning regimes as well as implications for talent identification (Fisher and Dean, 1998). The second aim of the present study was to assess the quality of the players of each of the four European leagues by surveying their international status, nationality and FIFA world ranking as well as participation in the FIFA World Cup 2002. This will offer information regarding the actual quality of international players within these leagues which, in turn, provides information about which league would be of the highest quality, differences in playing style and player selection. As the four leading European leagues were selected for analysis, the results provide beneficial information concerning the current status and possible future development of European soccer. Study 2: The 'Bloomfield Movement Classification': Motion Analysis of Individual Soccer Players In close relation with the investigation of the physical characteristics of elite level players, it was also aimed to identify the physical demands of performance. Computerised video-analysis was selected as the most appropriate platform to incorporate a study using the time-motion analysis methodology. This involves the notation of various subjectively or objectively chosen modes of motion which are digitally timed throughout the performance. To date, fewer than 8 modes of motion have often been chosen in time-motion investigation in soccer which arguably does not provide a sufficient degree of specificity to detail the physical demands. A high element of performance specificity must be established to elicit a high degree of transfer from competition into a training regime to optimise competitive performance (Henry, 1968; Barnett et al., 1973; Sale and MacDougall, 1981; Rosenbaum, 1987; Morrissey et al., 1995; Hill et al., 1998). The present study outlined a new approach to time-motion analysis through a method involving a greater depth of detail concerning modes of timed-motion, as well as other non-timed movements, directions, intensities, turning and 'On the Ball' categories. The aim of this study was to present a new methodology and establish reliability. The purpose was to provide a new method to perform a more detailed time-motion analysis study in soccer performance to be used in the third study of this thesis. PhD Thesis 8 Jonathan R. Bloomfield Study 3: Physical Demands of Outfield Positions in FA Premier League Soccer. To elicit an enhancement in soccer performance, it is considered important to analyse the physical demands of match-play (Reilly and Thomas, 1976; All and Farrally, 1991a; Hughes, 2003). Time-motion analysis has been used to investigate these demands. However, many limitations exist with previous research, one of which being the range of classifications used in the collection of data- A high degree of performance specificity is desired to improve coaching practices such as physical conditioning (Barnett et al., 1973). To this end, a new time-motion analysis methodology was designed (see Study 2) and aimed at providing a new level of specificity of performance into the physical demands of high level soccer. Also, the majority of soccer-related time-motion analyses have reported macroscopically with total frequency, total duration or total distance covered providing a summary of the overall physical requirements of soccer. As soccer match-play is essentially an intermittent exercise (Bangsbo, 1994e), it is important to progress the knowledge of the physical nature of the sport and further provide a higher level of specific detail. The aims of the present study were to provide detail regarding intermittent patterns of Purposeful Movement (PM) and Recovery (R), performed by players of three different positions (defender, midfielder and striker), to investigate the reoccurrence of bouts of PM and R within selected time phases and finally provide time-motion analysis of the PM using the BMC. PhD Study 4: Effective Conditioning for Soccer Match-Play The interaction of multiple dynamic physical activities often produces a hybrid of physiological and biomechanical stresses. Higher levels of soccer require increased levels of physical fitness through increased demands from high intensity activity (O'Donoghue et al., 2001; Strudwick and Reffly, 2001; Mohr et al., 2003). Therefore, increased ability to perform complex chains of movement skills (agility) in conjuncture with speed (both acceleration and deceleration) and quickness (overcoming inertia) are relative to high level performance (Withers et al., 1982; Bangsbo, 1992; Reilly, 1994a). This occurs through processes of motor learning and physical conditioning with the rules of specificity and overload as key underlying principles. In order to facilitate motor learning, practice should contain variability within each session in preference to the repeated rehearsal of a single skill (Fitts, 1964; Henry, 1968; Barnett et al., 1973; Carlson and Yaure, 1990; Vereijken, 1991; Whiting and Vereijken, 1993; Bangsbo, and Peitersen, 2000; WiHiams, 2002). This may take the form of programmed and controlled (e. g. SAQ0 conditioning) or random and semi-controlled (e. g. small-sided games) practice methods. Hoff et al., (2002) identified that both methods are credible for soccer conditioning. The main aim of this study was to investigate the efficacy of programmed and random motor learning and physical conditioning methods and investigate neurophysiological. and performance adaptations, A second aim was to investigate the necessity of the use of specialised SAQ8 equipment for the purposes of programmed conditioning

Eye quietness and quiet eye in expert and novice golf performance: an electrooculographic analysis

Quiet eye (QE) is the final ocular fixation on the target of an action (e.g., the ball in golf putting). Camerabased eye-tracking studies have consistently found longer QE durations in experts than novices; however, mechanisms underlying QE are not known. To offer a new perspective we examined the feasibility of measuring the QE using electrooculography (EOG) and developed an index to assess ocular activity across time: eye quietness (EQ). Ten expert and ten novice golfers putted 60 balls to a 2.4 m distant hole. Horizontal EOG (2ms resolution) was recorded from two electrodes placed on the outer sides of the eyes. QE duration was measured using a EOG voltage threshold and comprised the sum of the pre-movement and post-movement initiation components. EQ was computed as the standard deviation of the EOG in 0.5 s bins from –4 to +2 s, relative to backswing initiation: lower values indicate less movement of the eyes, hence greater quietness. Finally, we measured club-ball address and swing durations. T-tests showed that total QE did not differ between groups (p = .31); however, experts had marginally shorter pre-movement QE (p = .08) and longer post-movement QE (p < .001) than novices. A group × time ANOVA revealed that experts had less EQ before backswing initiation and greater EQ after backswing initiation (p = .002). QE durations were inversely correlated with EQ from –1.5 to 1 s (rs = –.48 - –.90, ps = .03 - .001). Experts had longer swing durations than novices (p = .01) and, importantly, swing durations correlated positively with post-movement QE (r = .52, p = .02) and negatively with EQ from 0.5 to 1s (r = –.63, p = .003). This study demonstrates the feasibility of measuring ocular activity using EOG and validates EQ as an index of ocular activity. Its findings challenge the dominant perspective on QE and provide new evidence that expert-novice differences in ocular activity may reflect differences in the kinematics of how experts and novices execute skills

A multidisciplinary investigation into the talent identification and development process in an English football academy

Introduction: The purpose of a player development pathway is to realise the most effective methods to support young individuals to maximise their potential (MacNamara & Collins, 2015). Within a modern football academy setting, the essential developmental characteristics are often termed environmental, psychological, sociological, physiological, technical, and tactical attributes (Sarmento et al., 2018). Although these factors have been explained to independently facilitate the acquisition of expert performance, fully-integrated multidisciplinary evidence from an English context is unknown. Therefore, the aim of this study was two-fold; firstly, to analyse these respective features to determine what outcomes support greater age-specific performance within the Foundation Development Phase (FDP; under-9 to 11s) and Youth Development Phase (YDP; under-12 to 16s) at an English professional football academy. Following this investigation, this thesis examined what characteristics facilitated age-specific development across two football seasons within the same group. Methods: During the first season, a total of 98 outfield academy players (FDP n=40; YDP n=58) participated. Two professional coaches from each age group (n=14) ranked their players from top to bottom in relation to current ability from a holistic perspective. This created a linear classification with a group of ‘high-performers’ (top third) and ‘low-performers’ (bottom third) within both the FDP and YDP. Results were standardised using z-scores and the assumptions were tested using a two-tailed independent samples t-test. A total of 87 outfield players who progressed into the second season were further analysed within their respective phase (FDP n=36; YDP n=51). A combination of 34 holistic factors, that discriminated high- and low-performers in the initial investigation, were measured at two time points across two football seasons with the Participation History Questionnaire (PHQ), Psychological Characteristics for Developing Excellence Questionnaire (PCDEQ), socio-economic status, growth and maturation data, physical performance, technical tests, match analysis statistics, perceptual-cognitive expertise (PCE), and game test situations. Development was measured by comparing the delta change between the overall player profile scores from two seasonal reports. Stepwise regression analyses were conducted to assess the predictive capability of these variables on overall development. Results: Multiple factors from environmental, psychological, sociological, physiological, technical, and tactical examinations significantly discriminated high- and low-performers, within both the FDP and YDP. Following these initial findings, developmental results illustrated significant technical and tactical characteristics within the FDP, whilst significant environmental, physiological, technical, and tactical attributes were observed within the YDP. When focussing on these factors combined, total touches change (p=0.023), taking advantage of openings quality (p=0.003), and PCE ‘post’ score change (p=0.029) explained a combined 11.5% of the variance within the FDP. Within the YDP, PCE ‘at’ score (p=0.21), total sports played change (p=0.008), and total match-play hours (p=0.009) explained a combined 34.1% of the variance. Discussion: Identifying talented players as young as 8 years of age is a complex and holistic process. Thus, academy coaches and practitioners must understand the significant features, such as practice history and multi-sport engagement, psychological characteristics, socio-economic factors, physical performance abilities, technical attributes, and tactical decision making when identifying and recruiting individuals. From a talent development viewpoint, results from the FDP support the importance of technical and tactical development during middle childhood compared to other influential factors. From a YDP perspective, results support the significance of the environment players are exposed to, whilst also illustrating the importance of PCE as a key ingredient within adolescence, to support greater overall development. Therefore, professional football academies are encouraged to deliver technical and tactical specific developmental activities within the FDP, whilst offering a substantial games programme, alongside other opportunities to participate in multi-sport activities across both age phases, to support superior development. Further evidence is needed within an English context, through collaboration with other academy environments, to support these findings, whilst greater longitudinal data is also required to understand which of these characteristics are necessary to ultimately achieve senior professional status.University of ExeterOpen Innovation PlatformExeter City Football Clu

To do or not to do (exercise) : physical activity in the lives of people with cerebral palsy

We examined the lives of adults with cerebral palsy who had minimal involvement in physical activity (Judy, aged 60; Alana, aged 29), who were involved in physical activity (Amy, aged 25; Ben, aged, 30), or who had minimal involvement in physical activity and who then participated in physical activity (David, aged 27; Tim, aged, 24). After receiving ethical approval, a life-history research approach (Denzin, 1989: Interpretive biography. Newbury Park, CA: Sage) was used, with the participants&rsquo; stories being interpreted using primarily psychodynamic theory (Freud, Erikson, Adler, Basch) to gain insight into their meaning and experiences of physical activity. Judy and Alana had similar childhood experiences, which included: performing difficult, and sometimes painful, physiotherapy; wearing callipers to assist their walking; lacking competence at physical activity; and being socially isolated from their classmates. These aspects of their life histories seemed to contribute to their subsequent avoidance of physical activity and early onset of functional decline.Amy and Ben had negative experiences with physical activity as children (similar to Judy and Alana), but were involved in, and valued, physical activity as adults. Physical activity was a means of displaying competence, delaying further functional loss, and becoming socially connected.David and Tim lost the ability to walk in early adolescence. The minimal physical activity in which they engaged during their adult lives was directed towards trying to walk again. Walking seemed to be intimately connected with psychosocial growth. David&rsquo;s weight-training programme seemed to provide him with another avenue for self-improvement towards his goal of attracting a life partner. Tim&rsquo;s warm-water aerobic programme provided him with an opportunity to develop competence at swimming and at walking, and to enhance his self-esteem for these activities.Involvement in physical activity may be important for people with cerebral palsy in their endeavours to successfully face the various psychosocial challenges throughout life. Implications of this research include: parents and teachers of children with cerebral palsy should provide support for their involvement in physical activity; physiotherapists should try to reduce the pain and increase the perceived relevancy of the treatments they deliver to young people with cerebral palsy; and psychologists should be aware of some of the difficulties people with cerebral palsy face and how they may manifest in adults with the condition.<br /

Characterizing Middle School Students’ Physical Literacy: A Sequential Mixed Methods Study

The purpose of this dissertation study was (a) to characterize middle school students’ levels of physical literacy (PL) and PL domains by gender, grade, socioeconomic status (SES), weight status, race, and ethnicity; and (b) to capture PL trajectory change as a result of receiving a theory-informed pedagogical workshop. Participants (N = 350) in sixth and seventh grades were recruited from a public middle school located in a southeastern U.S. state. These students completed the second version of the Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy (CAPL-2). A subsample (n = 49) received a pedagogical workshop (four sessions over eight weeks), participated in two focus-group interviews (pre and post workshop), and completed the CAPL-2 upon intervention. Demographic data were collected using questionnaire, while weight and height were collected using stadiometer and weight scale to calculate body mass index (BMI) percentile. I found (a) gender-based differences in PL (favor boys; d = 0.29), cognitive (favor girls; d = 0.35), physical (favor boys; d = 0.59), and affective domains (favor boys; d = 0.32); (b) grade-based differences in cognitive (favor seventh grade; d = 0.32) and physical (favor sixth grade; d = 0.33) domains; (c) SES-based differences in PL (d = 0.52), cognitive (d = 0.33), and behavioral (d = 0.63) domains, all favoring high SES group; (d) BMI-based differences in PL (d = 0.68), physical (d = 0.90), and affective (d = 0.40) domains, all favoring normal BMI group; and (e) race-based differences in cognitive (d = 0.44) and behavioral (d = 0.78) domains all favoring White. The subsample, after workshop intervention, showed improvement in PL, and cognitive and affective domains (d: 0.29 – 0.42) as assessed by CAPL-2. Interview data delineated a positive trend of PL change by virtue of physical activity type and intensity, perceived motives, and barriers of physical activity participation. The findings of this study bear significant implications for future PL interventions. PL is a dynamic state that can be improved across populations through purposeful PE curriculum and instruction

Attention and time constraints in performing and learning a table tennis forehand shot

This is a section on p. S95 of article 'Verbal and Poster: Motor Development, Motor Learning and Control, and Sport and Exercise Psychology' in Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2010, v.32, p.S36-S237published_or_final_versio

EEG coherence between the verbal-analytical region (T3) and the motor-planning region (Fz) increases under stress in explicit motor learners but not implicit motor learners

This journal supplement contains abstracts of NASPSPA 2010Free Communications - Verbal and Poster: Motor Learning and Controlpublished_or_final_versionThe Annual Conference of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA 2010), Tucson, AZ., 10-12 June 2010. In Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2010, v. 32 suppl., p. S13

Mia San Mia: Professional Club Soccer, Religion, and Social Ethics

For thousands of soccer fans around the world, soccer is their religion. This dissertation marks the first extended examination of what religious soccer is, what it looks like in practice, and how it impacts the lives of fans in the context of professional club soccer. It provides a framework for non-fans to understand how religious supporters view the game and addresses major moments in the development of soccer throughout the world, paying special attention to the difference between the United States and the rest of the world. Religious soccer is then explored in depth, drawing on ethnographic research with over five hundred fans spread across the world. The role of soccer in the everyday life of religious supporters, their rituals, and the ways in which they make meaning are explored, presented alongside the XI Commandments, as set of unique arguments that further illuminate religious soccer to non-practitioners. Religious supporters are most commonly found in supporters groups, officially recognized fan organizations, and thus the interaction between clubs and their supporters groups matters greatly. For clubs, soccer is a business and their focus on finances often puts them at odds with their supporters. Using a case study about the relationship between the Dallas Beer Guardians and FC Dallas from 2014-2016, it that demonstrates how fraught these relationships can become and how long it can take to restore a working relationship between the two groups. In order to improve these relationships, this dissertation offers a unique constructive social ethic that individuals and groups can utilize in their shared work. Unlike other ethics, this ethic is essentially a toolbox, wherein a number of different situations can be addressed using the same ethical system; it recognizes that situations vary and thus the same tools do not work universally. The tools contained within the ethic are designed to promote healthy, intentional relationships. Though presented in a soccer context, the ethic itself is not exclusive to this soccer context. It is designed to be contextualized by whomever is using it, providing a flexible and adaptable ethic that allows for creative responsiveness to small issues before they become bigger problems

Staying in the sweet spot : how elite level golfers engage in, structure, and experience practice throughout extended careers

Dr. Alexander C. Waigandt and Dr. Richard McGuire, Dissertation Supervisor.Field of study: Educational and counseling psychology.includes vitaThe path to expertise has been quantified on several occasions (Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer, 1993; Ericsson 2001; Ericsson and Charness, 1994; Ericsson 2008) as well as explored through qualitative retrospective methods (Bloom 1985; Kreiner, Phillips, and Orlick 1993; Hayman et. al. 2014). However, little research has investigated the experience of elite performers as they attempt to maximize their performance over time. The purpose of this study was to examine how elite golfers think about, structure, and experience practice intended to maximize performance throughout a long career. The researcher utilized a phenomenological approach to explore the lived experience of five PGA Tour players as they reflected on their practice experience thus far. The central themes found were: a) tailoring practice, b) achieving balance, c) staying engaged, d) being proactive. The core thematic findings spring from two results: 1. The most effective practice for elite golfers are highly individualized, and 2. effective practice for these players is reached when they proactively tailor their approach to pursue appropriate balance and achieve consistent engagement. These findings may benefit golfers, golf coaches, and applied sport psychology practitioners. Theoretical implications and possibilities for future research are discussed.Field of study: Educational and counseling psychology.|Dr. Alexander C. Waigandt and Dr. Richard McGuire, Dissertation Supervisor|Includes vita.Includes bibliographical references (pages 120-130)