Evolution of Microcontroller-based Remote Monitoring System Applications

This study reviews the evolution of smart applications of microcontroller-based wireless/wired remote monitoring systems. Rapid developments in science and technology offer the advantages of using integrated embedded chips, microprocessors, and microcontrollers. The use of microcontrollers in industrial processes, such as automobiles, aeronautics, space, robotics, electronics, defense applications, mobile communications, rail transport, and medical applications, is rapidly increasing. This study aims to review the progress of microcomputers in smart remote monitoring and controlling applications for the control and management of different systems using wireless/wired technique

Impacts of thinning of a Mediterranean oak forest on soil properties influencing water infiltration

In Mediterranean ecosystems, special attention needs to be paid to forest-water relationships due to water scarcity. In this context, Adaptive Forest Management (AFM) has the objective to establish how forest resources have to be managed with regards to the efficient use of water, which needs maintaining healthy soil properties even after disturbance. The main objective of this investigation was to understand the effect of one of the AFM methods, namely forest thinning, on soil hydraulic properties. At this aim, soil hydraulic characterization was performed on two contiguous Mediterranean oak forest plots, one of them thinned to reduce the forest density from 861 to 414 tree per ha. Three years after the intervention, thinning had not affected soil water permeability of the studied plots. Both ponding and tension infiltration runs yielded not significantly different saturated, Ks, and unsaturated, K-20, hydraulic conductivity values at the thinned and control plots. Therefore, thinning had no an adverse effect on vertical water fluxes at the soil surface. Mean Ks values estimated with the ponded ring infiltrometer were two orders of magnitude higher than K-20 values estimated with the minidisk infiltrometer, revealing probably soil structure with macropores and fractures . The input of hydrophobic organic matter, as a consequence of the addition of plant residues after the thinning treatment, resulted in slight differences in terms of both water drop penetration time, WDPT, and the index of water repellency, R, between thinned and control plots. Soil water repellency only affected unsaturated soil hydraulic conductivity measurements. Moreover, K-20 values showed a negative correlation with both WDPT and R, whereas Ks values did not, revealing that the soil hydrophobic behavior has no impact on saturated hydraulic conductivity

Improvement of BEST (Beerkan Estimation of Soil Transfer parameters) method for soil hydraulic characterization

Interpreting and modeling soil hydrological processes require the determination of the soil hydraulic characteristic curves, i.e. the relationships between volumetric soil water content, pressure head, and hydraulic conductivity. Using traditional methods to determine these properties is expensive and time consuming. Haverkamp et al. (1996) pioneered a specific method for soil hydraulic characterization known as the “Beerkan method”. An improved version of this methodology, called the Beerkan Estimation of Soil Transfer parameters (BEST) procedure, was developed by Lassabatère et al. (2006) to simplify soil hydraulic characterization. BEST considers certain analytic formulae for hydraulic characteristic curves and estimates their shape parameters, which are texture dependent, from particle-size analysis by physical-empirical pedotransfer functions. Structure dependent scale parameters are estimated by a three-dimensional field infiltration experiment at zero pressure head, using the two-term transient infiltration equation by Haverkamp et al. (1994). BEST is very attractive for practical use since it substantially facilitates the hydraulic characterization of unsaturated soils, and it is gaining popularity in soil science. The signs of a promising ability of the BEST procedure to yield a reasonably reliable soil hydraulic characterization can be found in the existing literature but there is still work to do. In fact, several problems yet arise with the BEST method, including: (1) the need to carry out many calculations to analyze a single run, which may demand a lot of time; (2) the need to analyze the transient phase of the infiltration process, which may be uncertain for different reasons; (3) the absence of an extensive assessment of the BEST predictions against independent measurements, i.e. with soil data collected by other experimental methods; and (4) the possible sensitivity of the data to soil disturbance and air entrapment during repeated water application, according to the BEST experimental procedure. The main objective of the present thesis was to study and improve the BEST method in order to understand or give a solution to all the former problems and consequently to contribute towards its widespread application throughout the world. With this aim, improvements to BEST method were proposed in terms of analysis of the collected data, estimation of hydrodynamic parameters and automation of the experimental procedure. In particular, a workbook to easily and rapidly analyze databases including several BEST runs, an alternative algorithm to analyze the Beerkan infiltration data and a compact infiltrometer to automate data collection with open source technology were developed. The proposed workbook is a practically useful contribution to an expeditious, intensive soil hydraulic characterization. The alternative algorithm can be considered a promising alternative procedure to analyze the Beerkan infiltration data. Finally, the cheap and automated infiltrometer constitutes a very cost effective alternative to previous proposed equipment. Moreover, BEST was tested in different soils and compared with several alternative field and laboratory methodologies highlighting the pros and cons that characterize the method and allowing to design BEST as a promising, easy, robust, and inexpensive way of characterizing soil hydraulic behavior. The main result of these studies was that BEST yields physically possible scale parameters of the soil characteristic curves in most of the replicated infiltration runs. Moreover, the water retention model used by BEST reproduced satisfactorily the laboratory data. Possible saturated soil hydraulic conductivity values were also obtained. The dependence of the measured hydrodynamic parameters on the experimental procedure used in BEST was also studied with the objective to improve our ability to interpret the field data and the linked hydrological processes. These studies led to the main conclusion that the choice of the procedure should vary with the intended use of the data. If the objective of the field campaign is to obtain data usable to explain surface runoff generation phenomena during intense rainfall events, for example, the most appropriate choice among the tested ones should be a perturbative run, to mimic relatively prolonged rainfall effects on the soil surface. A less perturbative run is more appropriate to determine the saturated hydraulic conductivity of a soil that is not directly impacted by rainfall, due for example to the presence of a mulching on the soil surface. Finally, a simplified method based on a Beerkan infiltration run to determine the saturated soil hydraulic conductivity by only a transient infiltration process was developed. This method is a good candidate method for intensive field campaign with a practically sustainable experimental effort

Comparing transient and steady-state analysis of single-ring infiltrometer data for an abandoned field affected by fire in Eastern Spain

Este estudio tenía por objeto determinar la conductividad hidráulica del suelo saturado de campo, Kfs, de un campo no controlado afectado por el fuego mediante recorridos con infiltrómetro de anillo único y el uso de procedimientos de análisis de datos en estado transitorio y estacionario. El muestreo y las mediciones se llevaron a cabo en 2012 y 2017 en un campo afectado por el fuego (sitio quemado) y en un sitio vecino no afectado (sitio de control). Se investigó el potencial de predicción de los diferentes procedimientos de análisis de datos (es decir, de estado transitorio y de estado estacionario) para obtener estimaciones adecuadas del Kfs. En particular, se compararon el método WU1 transitorio y los métodos BB, WU2 y OPD. Se utilizó el método de linealización acumulativa (CL) para aplicar el método WU1. Se obtuvieron valores de Kfs que oscilaban entre 0,87 y 4,21 mm.h-1, dependiendo del método de análisis de datos considerado. El método WU1 no arrojó estimaciones de Kfs significativamente diferentes entre los sitios muestreados a lo largo del período de cinco años, debido al desempeño generalmente deficiente del método CL, que echó a perder la caracterización hidráulica del suelo. En particular, sólo se obtuvieron buenos ajustes en el 23% de los casos. Los métodos BB, WU2 y OPD, con una caracterización basada exclusivamente en un proceso de infiltración estabilizado, produjeron una variabilidad apreciablemente menor de los datos de Kfs en comparación con el método WU1. Se llegó a la conclusión de que los métodos de estado estacionario eran más apropiados para detectar cambios leves de Kfs en las caracterizaciones hidráulicas del suelo después del incendio. Nuestros resultados mostraron un cierto grado de degradación del suelo en el lugar quemado con una reducción inmediata de la materia orgánica del suelo y un aumento progresivo de la densidad aparente del suelo durante los cinco años siguientes al incendio. Este empobrecimiento general dio lugar a una ligera pero significativa disminución de la conductividad hidráulica del suelo saturado por el campo.This study aimed at determining the field-saturated soil hydraulic conductivity, Kfs, of an unmanaged field affected by fire by means of single-ring infiltrometer runs and the use of transient and steady-state data analysis procedures. Sampling and measurements were carried out in 2012 and 2017 in a fire-affected field (burnt site) and in a neighboring non-affected site (control site). The predictive potential of different data analysis procedures (i.e., transient and steady-state) to yield proper Kfs estimates was investigated. In particular, the transient WU1 method and the BB, WU2 and OPD methods were compared. The cumulative linearization (CL) method was used to apply the WU1 method. Values of Kfs ranging from 0.87 to 4.21 mm.h-1 were obtained, depending on the considered data analysis method. The WU1 method did not yield significantly different Kfs estimates between the sampled sites throughout the five-year period, due to the generally poor performance of the CL method, which spoiled the soil hydraulic characterization. In particular, good fits were only obtained in 23% of the cases. The BB, WU2 and the OPD methods, with a characterization based exclusively on a stabilized infiltration process, yielded an appreciably lower variability of the Kfs data as compared with the WU1 method. It was concluded that steady-state methods were more appropriate for detecting slight changes of Kfs in post-fire soil hydraulic characterizations. Our results showed a certain degree of soil degradation at the burnt site with an immediate reduction of the soil organic matter and a progressive increase of the soil bulk density during the five years following the fire. This general impoverishment resulted in a slight but significant decrease in the field-saturated soil hydraulic conductivity.• POSTFIRE Project CGL2013-47862-C2-1 y 2-R • POSTFIRE-CARE Project CGL2016-75178-C2-2-RpeerReviewe

Water transmission properties of a sandy-loam soil estimated with Beerkan runs differing by the infiltration time criterion

The Beerkan method consists of a ponded infiltration experiment from a single ring inserted a small depth into the soil. Fixed, small volumes of water are repeatedly poured into the ring to maintain a quasi-zero head on the soil surface. According to the standard Beerkan infiltration run, a new water volume is poured on the infiltration surface when the previously applied volume has completely infiltrated and the soil surface is entirely exposed to air (ta criterion). However, water could also be applied when the soil exposition to air begins (to criterion) or half the soil surface is exposed to air (tm criterion). The effect of the infiltration time criterion on determination of the water transmission properties of a sandy-loam soil was tested. As compared with the standard ta criterion, the two alternative criteria (to, tm) yielded higher and/or more variable estimates of soil water transmission properties. The saturated soil hydraulic conductivity, Ks, was the most sensitive property to the infiltration time criterion. However, statistically significant differences for Ks were not practically substantial since they did not exceed a factor of 1.7. Infiltration time effects likely occurred due to differences between ponding depth of water, soil water pressure head gradient, air entrapment and soil mechanical disturbance. The standard ta criterion was suggested for performing a Beerkan experiment in the field since it appears to yield the most reliable estimates of a mean value. However, the to criterion could be considered in dual permeability soils to maintain macropores active. Factors that could appear minor in the context of an experiment can have statistically relevant effects on water transmission properties

Using Beerkan experiments to estimate hydraulic conductivity of a crusted loamy soil in a Mediterranean vineyard

In bare soils of semi-arid areas, surface crusting is a rather common phenomenon due to the impact of raindrops. Water infiltration measurements under ponding conditions are becoming largely applied techniques for an approximate characterization of crusted soils. In this study, the impact of crusting on soil hydraulic conductivity was assessed in a Mediterranean vineyard (western Sicily, Italy) under conventional tillage. The BEST (Beerkan Estimation of Soil Transfer parameters) algorithm was applied to the infiltration data to obtain the hydraulic conductivity of crusted and uncrusted soils. Soil hydraulic conductivity was found to vary during the year and also spatially (i.e., rows vs. inter-rows) due to crusting, tillage and vegetation cover. A 55 mm rainfall event resulted in a decrease of the saturated soil hydraulic conductivity, Ks, by a factor of 1.6 in the inter-row areas, due to the formation of a crusted layer at the surface. The same rainfall event did not determine a Ks reduction in the row areas (i.e., Ks decreased by a non-significant factor of 1.05) because the vegetation cover intercepted the raindrops and therefore prevented alteration of the soil surface. The developed ring insertion methodology on crusted soil, implying pre-moistening through the periphery of the sampled surface, together with the very small insertion depth of the ring (0.01 m), prevented visible fractures. Consequently, Beerkan tests carried out along and between the vine-rows and data analysis by the BEST algorithm allowed to assess crusting-dependent reductions in hydraulic conductivity with extemporaneous measurements alone. The reliability of the tested technique was also confirmed by the results of the numerical simulation of the infiltration process in a crusted soil. Testing the Beerkan infiltration run in other crusted soils and establishing comparisons with other experimental methodologies appear advisable to increase confidence on the reliability of the method that seems suitable for simple characterization of crusted soils

Development of an open-architecture temperature data logger for hydro-distillation agarwood oil extractor

Microcontroller based data logger system recently emerged as a powerful, flexible and cost-effective measurement solution to many innovative field applications in environmental monitoring, agriculture and solar energy. Real-time temperature is vital to provide discrete knowledge in the process of distillation as it involves mixture boiling, evaporation and condensation at the difference in liquid phases. The development of a data logger namely OCTATherm for use in the Agarwood extraction industry is realized by designing an electronic enclosure to protect an Arduino-based microcontroller system that can acquire eight (8) thermocouples readings for monitoring the hydro-distillation process. The accuracy and reliability of the data logger have been evaluated by assessing the hydro-distillation (HD) process on a laboratory scale by comparing its performance to the commercial data logger (HOBO UX120). Finally, the assessment in the industry with multi-boiler operate simultaneously shows that real-time monitoring of the temperature measurements at critical points of the conventional HD system can improve the yield of the extracted Agarwood essential oil by three (3) times higher from 0.027% to 0.101%. The implementation of real-time thermal management technology in the HD system in the Agarwood essential oil production industry is therefore of great importance. This developed data logger is significant to produce a real-time data acquisition and monitoring platform of temperature measurement, which aims to facilitate agriculture industry process monitoring as well as academic research purpose in another area. The open-architecture based system design is also highlighted in which provides future upgrades of expansion and extension features of the data logger

A low cost Automated Test Column to estimate Soil Hydraulic Characteristics in Unsaturated Porous Media

Research ArticleThe estimation of soil hydraulic properties in the vadose zone has some issues, such as accuracy, acquisition time, and cost. In this study, an inexpensive automated test column (ATC) was developed to characterize water flowin a homogeneous unsaturated porous medium by the simultaneous estimation of three hydraulic state variables: water content,matric potential, and water flow rates. The ATC includes five electrical resistance probes, two minitensiometers, and a drop counter, which were tested with infiltration tests using theHydrus-1D model. The results show that calibrations of electrical resistance probes reasonably match with similar studies, and the maximumerror of calibration of the tensiometers was 4.6% with respect to the full range.Datameasured by the drop counter installed in theATC exhibited a high consistency with the electrical resistance probes, which provides an independent verification of the model and indicates an evaluation of the water mass balance. The study results show good performance of the model against the infiltration tests, which suggests a robustness of the methodology developed in this study. An extension to the applicability of this system could be successfully used in low-budget projects in large-scale field experiments, which may be correlated with resistivity changes.The authors would like to acknowledge the Minist`ere des Relations Internationales du Qu´ebec, the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnolog´ıa (CONACyT 201800), the Consejo Mexiquense de Ciencia y Tecnolog´ıa (COMECYT), the Universidad Aut´onoma del Estado de M´exico (UAEM), the Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique (INRS-ETE),and the Minist`ere d’´Education du Qu´ebec for providing funding and logistical support for this study. The authors are also grateful for the technical support of the laboratory technicians from the Inter-American Centre of Water Resources (CIRA) in Toluca, Mexico

Comparing Beerkan infiltration tests with rainfall simulation experiments for hydraulic characterization of a sandy-loam soil

[EN] Saturated soil hydraulic conductivity, K-s, data collected by ponding infiltrometer methods and usual experimental procedures could be unusable for interpreting field hydrological processes and particularly rainfall infiltration. The K-s values determined by an infiltrometer experiment carried out by applying water at a relatively large distance from the soil surface could however be more appropriate to explain surface runoff generation phenomena during intense rainfall events. In this study, a link between rainfall simulation and ponding infiltrometer experiments was established for a sandy-loam soil. The height of water pouring for the infiltrometer run was chosen, establishing a similarity between the gravitational potential energy of the applied water, E-p, and the rainfall kinetic energy, E-k. To test the soundness of this procedure, the soil was sampled with the Beerkan estimation of soil transfer parameters procedure of soil hydraulic characterization and two heights of water pouring (0.03m, i.e., usual procedure, and 0.34m, yielding E-p=E-k). Then, a comparison between experimental steady-state infiltration rates, i(sR), measured with rainfall simulation experiments determining runoff production and K-s values for the two water pouring heights was carried out in order to discriminate between theoretically possible (i(sR)K(s)) and impossible (i(sR)3.0.co;2-vCerdà, A. (1999). Seasonal and spatial variations in infiltration rates in badland surfaces under Mediterranean climatic conditions. Water Resources Research, 35(1), 319-328. doi:10.1029/98wr01659Cerdà, A. (2000). Aggregate stability against water forces under different climates on agriculture land and scrubland in southern Bolivia. Soil and Tillage Research, 57(3), 159-166. doi:10.1016/s0167-1987(00)00155-0Cerdà, A. (2001). Effects of rock fragment cover on soil infiltration, interrill runoff and erosion. European Journal of Soil Science, 52(1), 59-68. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2389.2001.00354.xCerdà, A., & Doerr, S. H. (2007). Soil wettability, runoff and erodibility of major dry-Mediterranean land use types on calcareous soils. Hydrological Processes, 21(17), 2325-2336. doi:10.1002/hyp.6755Cerdà, A., Ibáñez, S., & Calvo, A. (1997). Design and operation of a small and portable rainfall simulator for rugged terrain. Soil Technology, 11(2), 163-170. doi:10.1016/s0933-3630(96)00135-3Di Prima, S. (2015). Automated single ring infiltrometer with a low-cost microcontroller circuit. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 118, 390-395. doi:10.1016/j.compag.2015.09.022Di Prima, S., Lassabatere, L., Bagarello, V., Iovino, M., & Angulo-Jaramillo, R. (2016). Testing a new automated single ring infiltrometer for Beerkan infiltration experiments. Geoderma, 262, 20-34. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.08.006Diodato, N., Verstraeten, G., & Bellocchi, G. (2012). DECADAL MODELLING OF RAINFALL EROSIVITY IN BELGIUM. Land Degradation & Development, 25(6), 511-519. doi:10.1002/ldr.2168Gee GW Bauder JW 1986 Particle-size analysis SSSA Book Series 383 411Haverkamp, R., Ross, P. J., Smettem, K. R. J., & Parlange, J. Y. (1994). Three-dimensional analysis of infiltration from the disc infiltrometer: 2. Physically based infiltration equation. Water Resources Research, 30(11), 2931-2935. doi:10.1029/94wr01788Iovino, M., Castellini, M., Bagarello, V., & Giordano, G. (2013). Using Static and Dynamic Indicators to Evaluate Soil Physical Quality in a Sicilian Area. Land Degradation & Development, 27(2), 200-210. doi:10.1002/ldr.2263Iserloh, T., Ries, J. B., Arnáez, J., Boix-Fayos, C., Butzen, V., Cerdà, A., … Wirtz, S. (2013). European small portable rainfall simulators: A comparison of rainfall characteristics. 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