Assessing the reliability and validity of television and game violence exposure measures

This study evaluated whether common self-report measures of television and game violence exposure represent reliable and valid measurement tools. Three self-report measures—direct estimates, user-rated favorites, and agency-rated favorites—were assessed in terms of test-retest reliability, criterion validity (their relationship with coded media diaries), and construct validity (their relationship with aggression and gender). A total of 238 adolescents participated in a two-wave survey and completed two media diaries. For game violence, the three self-report measures were reliable and valid. For television violence, only direct estimates achieved test-retest reliability and construct validity. Criterion validity could not be established for the television violence measures because the media diary was not a valid criterion for television violence. Our findings indicate that both direct estimates and favorites are valid measures for game violence, whereas for television violence, only direct estimates are valid. We conclude with a discussion about ways to further improve upon and reconceptualize media violence exposure measurement

Pathologic use of video games and gotivation. Can the Gaming Motivation Scale (GAMS) predict depression and trait anxiety?

Videogaming is an increasingly prevalent activity among adolescents worldwide. The present study aimed at adapting the Gaming Motivation Scale (GAMS) to the Italian context, assessing its psychometric properties and verifying its sensitivity to predict depression and anxiety levels. From a sample of 1899 participants, a group of 388 adolescents who participated in the survey was divided into two subgroups of Heavy (HG, N = 188) and Light Gamers (LG, N = 200). A sub-sample of N = 172 adolescents also filled-in CESD and STAI to assess, respectively, depression and trait anxiety. Internal consistency and factorial structure of the Italian version of GAMS (GAMS-it) have been evaluated. Moreover, a latent regression structural equation model by predicting the CES-D and STAI scores with the GAMS-it factors has been carried out. GAMS-it has adequate validity and reliability levels, showing a very similar factorial structure to the original version. Therefore, this scale can be used to evaluate gaming motivation, which is useful for gaming motivation screening. Finally, it has been found that lower gaming motivation can be related to high level of depression and anxiety. The present findings provide a coherent picture, supporting the reliability and validity of the GAMS-it, that appears potentially useful in predicting anxiety and depression levels in a population of adolescent

Violent Media Exposure and Bullying Behaviors: The Moderating Roles of Parental Monitoring, Emotion Regulation, and Gender

The influence of violent media exposure on the development of aggression has received increased attention in recent years. Research supports a relationship between exposure to violent media and aggressive behavior. Few studies have examined the relationship between exposure to violent media and a specific form of aggressive behavior, bullying. The current study aimed to expand on previous research by examining the relationship between the violent media exposure and self-, peer-, and teacher-reported bullying behavior using a longitudinal design with 457 3rd and 4th grade elementary students. Another aim of the current study was to examine the extent to which gender, parental media monitoring and children’s emotional regulation ability moderated the prospective relationship between the violent media exposure and bullying behavior. Findings from the current investigation did not support a positive relationship between violent media exposure and self-, teacher-, or peer-reported bullying behaviors. In fact, violent media exposure emerged as a significant, negative predictor of self-reported overt and relational bullying. There was no evidence that gender, parental media monitoring, or children’s emotional regulation ability moderated the relation between violent media exposure and bullying

Video Game Playing and Beliefs about Masculinity Among Male and Female Emerging Adults

Video games have been soundly critiqued for their depiction of gender, and emerging research has shown that playing can be associated with holding stereotypical or narrow views of gender roles and norms. Yet, rarely has past research focused particularly on correlations between video game playing and perceptions of masculinity, in particular, despite critiques of gaming content and culture as a space where a type of hypermasculinity thrives. The current study explores the relationships between the overall amount of time spent with video games and time spent with games that contain violence with beliefs that emerging adults hold about masculine gender role norms. In a sample of 244 young adult video game players from across the United States, amount of perceived violence in favorite games is shown to predict scores on the Masculine Role Norms Index-Revised and some of its subscales, even under multiple controls. Gender identity of respondent does not moderate the relationships, thereby suggesting that both men and women players with violent favorite games are likely to endorse a view of masculinity that includes aggression, dominance, toughness, and the suppression of emotions. Implications for policymakers, students and other young adults, and for society at large are discussed

The exposure to violence questionnaire in adolescents: psychometrics and associations with well-being

No funding was received for conducting this study. The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Centro de Investigação em Psicologia para o Desenvolvimento (CIPD) and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Paulo A. S. Moreira, Centro de Investigação em Psicologia para o Desenvolvimento (CIPD), Rua de Moçambique 21 e 71, Porto 4100-348, Portugal. Email: [email protected] version of the article has been accepted for publication, after peer review (when applicable) and is subject to Springer Nature’s AM terms of use, but is not the Version of Record and does not reflect post-acceptance improvements, or any corrections. The Version of Record is available online at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-01903-9.Exposure to violence can have strong detrimental effects on adolescents, including long-term negative consequences for development, adjustment, and functionality. This study tests the factorial structure, psychometric properties, and construct validity of a Portuguese version of the Exposure to Violence Scale (EVS); a measure of adolescents’ direct and indirect exposure to violence at school, in their community, at home, and on TV. The study sample comprised 306 Portuguese adolescents, 53.9% of whom were boys (Mage= 13 years, SD = 1.6), from the 6th to 10th grades. These adolescents completed the EVS, a measure of positive and negative affect, and a measure of perceived quality of life. We used confirmatory factor analysis to test structural validity. This analysis indicated that a seven correlated factors model the data well. Cronbach’s alpha values indicated the sub-scales were reliable. T-tests indicated that older adolescents typically reported greater exposure to violence than younger adolescents, and that boys experienced more direct violence at school and home, and indirect violence in the community, than girls did. Finally, positive correlations with negative affect, and negative correlations with positive affect and well-being, offered evidence of convergent validity. The EVS for Portuguese adolescents has adequate psychometric properties for use as a brief screening tool for assessing the various forms and contexts of exposure to violence in adolescents. Having this validated instrument for use in Portugal has important clinical implications for teachers, health professionals, and teachers

Violent video game exposure and physical aggression in adolescence: Tests of the General Aggression Model

The General Aggression Model indicates that long term exposure to violent video games increases aggression by altering players\u27 aggressive personality (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). In this dissertation, cross-sectional and longitudinal tests of this mediated relation were conducted to determine if violent video game exposure had a direct effect on physical aggression as well as a direct effect via pathways through trait aggression (Buss & Perry, 1992) and normative status (Cohn & White, 1990). A category-based scale assessing violent video game exposure (Trinkner, Bucolo, Cohn, Rebellon, & Van Gundy, 2009) was used as the independent variable and a self-report measure of physical aggression (Wolpin, 1983) was used for the dependent variable. Cross-sectional analyses found that violent video game exposure directly predicted physical aggression. Further, both trait aggression and normative status were partial mediators of this relationship. Moderator analyses found that these associations were similar for both middle school and high school students. Longitudinal tests of this mediated relation provided different results. Over an 18 month period, violent video game exposure directly predicted increased physical aggression. Neither trait aggression nor normative status mediated this association. Further, moderator analyses revealed that exposure to violent video games was a significant predictor of future physical aggression among middle school students, but this variable did not predict future physical aggression for high school students. While these findings did not support all the predictions of the General Aggression Model (Anderson & Bushman, 2002), they indicate that violent video game exposure is associated with increased physical aggression in the real world. Further, exposure to violent video games appears only to have serious long term effects on younger players when compared to older players. These findings suggest that regulation aimed at reducing the negative effects of violent video games should be targeted toward younger players. Creating laws requiring personal identification to purchase violent video games and increased parental involvement in adolescents\u27 video game exposure may reduce some of these negative effects

Sex on TV: Content and Context

Part of a series that examines the nature and extent of sexual messages conveyed on American television. Focuses on references to contraception, safer sex, and waiting to have sex. Based on a sample of 1997-1998 programs