PB-ACR: Node Payload Balanced Ant Colony Optimal Cooperative Routing for Multi-Hop Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks

For a given source-destination pair in multi-hop underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASNs), an optimal route is the one with the lowest energy consumptions that usually consists of the same relay nodes even under different transmission tasks. However, this will lead to the unbalanced payload of the relay nodes in the multi-hop UASNs and accelerate the loss of the working ability for the entire system. In this paper, we propose a node payload balanced ant colony optimal cooperative routing (PB-ACR) protocol for multi-hop UASNs, through combining the ant colony algorithm and cooperative transmission. The proposed PB-ACR protocol is a relay node energy consumption balanced scheme, which considers both data priority and residual energy of each relay node, aiming to reduce the occurrence of energy holes and thereby prolong the lifetime of the entire UASNs. We compare the proposed PB-ACR protocol with the existing ant colony algorithm routing (ACAR) protocol to verify its performances in multi-hop UASNs, in terms of network throughput, energy consumption, and algorithm complexity. The simulation results show that the proposed PB-ACR protocol can effectively balance the energy consumption of underwater sensor nodes and hence prolong the network lifetime

Routing Protocols for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks: A Survey from an Application Perspective

Underwater acoustic communications are different from terrestrial radio communications; acoustic channel is asymmetric and has large and variable end‐to‐end propagation delays, distance‐dependent limited bandwidth, high bit error rates, and multi‐path fading. Besides, nodes’ mobility and limited battery power also cause problems for networking protocol design. Among them, routing in underwater acoustic networks is a challenging task, and many protocols have been proposed. In this chapter, we first classify the routing protocols according to application scenarios, which are classified according to the number of sinks that an underwater acoustic sensor network (UASN) may use, namely single‐sink, multi‐sink, and no‐sink. We review some typical routing strategies proposed for these application scenarios, such as cross‐layer and reinforcement learning as well as opportunistic routing. Finally, some remaining key issues are highlighted

A Survey on Underwater Acoustic Sensor Network Routing Protocols

Underwater acoustic sensor networks (UASNs) have become more and more important in ocean exploration applications, such as ocean monitoring, pollution detection, ocean resource management, underwater device maintenance, etc. In underwater acoustic sensor networks, since the routing protocol guarantees reliable and effective data transmission from the source node to the destination node, routing protocol design is an attractive topic for researchers. There are many routing algorithms have been proposed in recent years. To present the current state of development of UASN routing protocols, we review herein the UASN routing protocol designs reported in recent years. In this paper, all the routing protocols have been classified into different groups according to their characteristics and routing algorithms, such as the non-cross-layer design routing protocol, the traditional cross-layer design routing protocol, and the intelligent algorithm based routing protocol. This is also the first paper that introduces intelligent algorithm-based UASN routing protocols. In addition, in this paper, we investigate the development trends of UASN routing protocols, which can provide researchers with clear and direct insights for further research

A Survey on Efficient Routing Strategies For The Internet of Underwater Things (IoUT)

The Internet of Underwater Things (IoUT) is an emerging technology that promised to connect the underwater world to the land internet. It is enabled via the usage of the Underwater Acoustic Sensor Network (UASN). Therefore, it is affected by the challenges faced by UASNs such as the high dynamics of the underwater environment, the high transmission delays, low bandwidth, high-power consumption, and high bit error ratio. Due to these challenges, designing an efficient routing protocol for the IoUT is still a trade-off issue. In this paper, we discuss the specific challenges imposed by using UASN for enabling IoUT, we list and explain the general requirements for routing in the IoUT and we discuss how these challenges and requirements are addressed in literature routing protocols. Thus, the presented information lays a foundation for further investigations and futuristic proposals for efficient routing approaches in the IoUT

Game Theory-Based Cooperation for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks: Taxonomy, Review, Research Challenges and Directions.

Exploring and monitoring the underwater world using underwater sensors is drawing a lot of attention these days. In this field cooperation between acoustic sensor nodes has been a critical problem due to the challenging features such as acoustic channel failure (sound signal), long propagation delay of acoustic signal, limited bandwidth and loss of connectivity. There are several proposed methods to improve cooperation between the nodes by incorporating information/game theory in the node's cooperation. However, there is a need to classify the existing works and demonstrate their performance in addressing the cooperation issue. In this paper, we have conducted a review to investigate various factors affecting cooperation in underwater acoustic sensor networks. We study various cooperation techniques used for underwater acoustic sensor networks from different perspectives, with a concentration on communication reliability, energy consumption, and security and present a taxonomy for underwater cooperation. Moreover, we further review how the game theory can be applied to make the nodes cooperate with each other. We further analyze different cooperative game methods, where their performance on different metrics is compared. Finally, open issues and future research direction in underwater acoustic sensor networks are highlighted

An energy scaled and expanded vector-based forwarding scheme for industrial underwater acoustic sensor networks with sink mobility

Industrial Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (IUASNs) come with intrinsic challenges like long propagation delay, small bandwidth, large energy consumption, three-dimensional deployment, and high deployment and battery replacement cost. Any routing strategy proposed for IUASN must take into account these constraints. The vector based forwarding schemes in literature forward data packets to sink using holding time and location information of the sender, forwarder, and sink nodes. Holding time suppresses data broadcasts; however, it fails to keep energy and delay fairness in the network. To achieve this, we propose an Energy Scaled and Expanded Vector-Based Forwarding (ESEVBF) scheme. ESEVBF uses the residual energy of the node to scale and vector pipeline distance ratio to expand the holding time. Resulting scaled and expanded holding time of all forwarding nodes has a significant difference to avoid multiple forwarding, which reduces energy consumption and energy balancing in the network. If a node has a minimum holding time among its neighbors, it shrinks the holding time and quickly forwards the data packets upstream. The performance of ESEVBF is analyzed through in network scenario with and without node mobility to ensure its effectiveness. Simulation results show that ESEVBF has low energy consumption, reduces forwarded data copies, and less end-to-end delay

Self-Organizing and Scalable Routing Protocol (SOSRP) for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks

Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASN) have two important limitations: a very aggressive (marine) environment, and the use of acoustic signals. This means that the techniques for terrestrial wireless sensor networks (WSN) are not applicable. This paper proposes a routing protocol called “Self-Organizing and Scalable Routing Protocol” (SOSRP) which is decentralized and based on tables residing in each node. A combination of the hop value to the collector node and the distance is used as a criterion to create routes leading to the sink node. The expected functions of the protocol include self-organization of the routes, tolerance to failures and detection of isolated nodes. Through the implementation of SOSRP in Matlab and a model of propagation and energy being appropriate for marine environment, performance results are obtained in different scenarios (varying both nodes and transmission range) that include parameters such as end-to-end packet delay, consumption of energy or length of the created routes (with and without failure). The results obtained show a stable, reliable and suitable operation for the deployment and operation of nodes in UASN networks

FFRP: Dynamic firefly mating optimization inspired energy efficient routing protocol for internet of underwater wireless sensor networks

Energy-efficient and reliable data gathering using highly stable links in underwater wireless sensor networks (UWSNs) is challenging because of time and location-dependent communication characteristics of the acoustic channel. In this paper, we propose a novel dynamic firefly mating optimization inspired routing scheme called FFRP for the internet of UWSNs-based events monitoring applications. The proposed FFRP scheme during the events data gathering employs a self-learning based dynamic firefly mating optimization intelligence to find the highly stable and reliable routing paths to route packets around connectivity voids and shadow zones in UWSNs. The proposed scheme during conveying information minimizes the high energy consumption and latency issues by balancing the data traffic load evenly in a large-scale network. In additions, the data transmission over highly stable links between acoustic nodes increases the overall packets delivery ratio and network throughput in UWSNs. Several simulation experiments are carried out to verify the effectiveness of the proposed scheme against the existing schemes through NS2 and AquaSim 2.0 in UWSNs. The experimental outcomes show the better performance of the developed protocol in terms of high packets delivery ratio (PDR) and network throughput (NT) with low latency and energy consumption (EC) compared to existing routing protocols in UWSNs

Novel Approach using Robust Routing Protocol in Underwater Acoustic Wireless Sensor Network with Network Simulator 2: A Review

In recent year wireless sensor network has been an emerging technology and promising technology in unveiling the riddle of the marine life and other underwater applications. As it is a permutation of computation, sensing and communication. In the 70% of the earth a huge amount of unexploited resources lies covered by oceans. To coordinate interact and share information among themselves to carry out sensing and monitoring function underwater sensor network consists number of various sensors and autonomous underwater vehicles deployed underwater. The two most fundamental problems in underwater sensor network are sensing coverage and network connectivity. The coverage problem reflects how well a sensor network is tracked or monitored by sensors. An underwater wireless sensor networks is the emerging field that is having the challenges in each field such as the deployment of nodes, routing, floating movement of sensors etc. This paper is concerned about the underwater acoustic wireless sensor network of routing protocol applications and UW-ASNs deployments for monitoring and control of underwater domains

Effective Medium Access Control for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks

This work is concerned with the design, analysis and development of effective Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs). The use of acoustic waves underwater places time-variant channel constraints on the functionality of MAC protocols. The contrast between traffic characteristics of the wide-ranging applications of UASNs makes it hard to design a single MAC protocol that can be adaptive to various applications. This thesis proposes MAC solutions that can meet the environmental and non-environmental challenges posed underwater. Scheduling-based schemes are the most common MAC solutions for UASNs, but scheduling is also challenging in such a dynamic environment. The preferable way of synchronisation underwater is the use of a global scheduler, guard intervals and exchange of timing signals. To this end, single-hop topologies suit UASN applications very well. The Combined Free and Demand Assignment Multiple Access (CFDAMA) is a centralised, scheduling-based MAC protocol demonstrating simplicity and adaptability to the time-variant channel and traffic characteristics. It is shown to minimise end-to-end delay, maximise channel utilisation and maintain fairness amongst nodes. This thesis primarily introduces two novel robust MAC solutions for UASNs, namely CFDAMA with Systematic Round Robin and CFDAMA without clock synchronisation (CFDAMA-NoClock). The former scheme is more suitable for large-scale and widely-spread UASNs, whereas the latter is a more feasible MAC solution when synchronisation amongst node clocks cannot be attained. Both analytical and comprehensive event-driven Riverbed simulations of underwater scenarios selected based on realistic sensor deployments show that the two protocols make it possible to load the channel up to higher levels of its capacity with controlled delay performance superior to that achievable with the traditional CFDAMA schemes. The new scheduling features make the CFDAMA-NoClock scheme a very feasible networking solution for robust and efficient UASN deployments in the real world