The construction of Electromagnetism

Abstract We examine the construction of electromagnetism in its current form, and in an alternative form, from a point of view that combines a minimal realism with strict rational demands. We begin by discussing the requests of reason when constructing a theory and next, we follow the historical development as presented in the record of original publications, the underlying epistemology (often explained by the authors) and the mathematical constructions. The historical construction develops along socio-political disputes (mainly, the reunification of Germany and the second industrial revolution), epistemic disputes (at least two demarcations of science in conflict) and several theories of electromagnetism. Such disputes resulted in the militant adoption of the ether by some, a position that expanded in parallel with the expansion of Prussia. This way of thinking was facilitated by the earlier adoption of a standpoint that required, as a condition for understanding, the use of physical hypothesis in the form of analogies; an attitude that is antithetic to Newton's “hypotheses non fingo”. While the material ether was finally abandoned, the epistemology survived in the form of “substantialism” and a metaphysical ether: the space. The militants of the ether attributed certainties regarding the ether to Faraday and Maxwell, when they only expressed doubts and curiosity. Thus, the official story is not the real history. This was achieved by the operation of detaching Maxwell's electromagnetism from its construction and introducing a new game of formulae and interpretations. Large and important parts of Maxwell work are today not known, as for example, the rules for the transformation of the electromagnetic potentials between moving systems. When experiments showed that all the theories based in the material ether were incorrect, a new interpretation was offered: Special Relativity (SR). At the end of the transformation period a pragmatic view of science, well adapted to the industrial society, had emerged, as well as a new protagonist: the theoretical physicist. The rival theory of delayed action at distance initiated under the influence of Gauss was forgotten in the midst of the intellectual warfare. The theory is indistinguishable in formulae from Maxwell's and its earlier versions are the departing point of Maxwell for the construction of his equations. We show in a mathematical appendix that such (relational) theory can incorporate Lorentz' contributions as well as Maxwell's transformations and C. Neumann's action, without resource to the ether. Demarcation criteria was further changed at the end of the period making room for habits and intuitions. When these intuited criteria are examined by critical reason (seeking for the fundaments) they can be sharpened with the use of the Non Arbitrariness Principle, which throws light over the arbitrariness in the construction of SR. Under a fully rational view SR is not acceptable, it requires to adopt a less demanding epistemology that detaches the concept from the conception, such as Einstein's own view in this respect, inherited from Hertz. In conclusion: we have shown in this relevant exercise how the reality we accept depends on earlier, irrational, decisions that are not offered for examination but rather are inherited from the culture

Maxwell\u27s Predictions

With this module, you will reach a milestone in your study of electromagnetic phenomena. From past modules, you now have (at your fingertips, hopefully!) the same basic laws of electromagnetism that Maxwell collected together in the nineteenth century. However, as powerful as these laws were, Maxwell found that there was a basic flaw -- a logical inconsistency -- in the one known as Ampere\u27s law. He was able to deduce (in advance of any direct experimental test) precisely the correction that was needed. With this correction, the addition of what is called the displacement-current term to Ampere\u27s law, it follows that a changing electric field gives rise to a magnetic field, just as a changing magnetic field gives rise to an electric field according to Faraday\u27s law. After he had predicted this mutual relationship, Maxwell was able to go on and predict that the right combination of oscillating electric and magnetic fields could literally kick itself through empty space. This is the phenomenon that we now call electromagnetic waves --which include, along with TV and radio waves, the sunlight that we receive across 93,000,000 miles of space without any significant loss of intensity other than that which necessarily follows from its spreading out in all directions. The development of the theory of electromagnetic waves from the basic laws of electricity and magnetism that you have studied in past modules is one of the most beautiful in physics, and at the same time one of the most mathematically difficult that you will meet in this course. Thus if the arguments at times seem long -- bear with it! -- the total module is fairly short

Einstein: His Space and Times

The commonly held view of Albert Einstein is of an eccentric genius for whom the pursuit of science was everything. But in actuality, the brilliant innovator whose Theory of Relativity forever reshaped our understanding of time was a man of his times, always politically engaged and driven by strong moral principles. An avowed pacifist, Einstein’s mistrust of authority and outspoken social and scientific views earned him death threats from Nazi sympathizers in the years preceding World War II. To him, science provided not only a means for understanding the behavior of the universe, but a foundation for considering the deeper questions of life and a way for the worldwide Jewish community to gain confidence and pride in itself. This biography presents Einstein in the context of the world he lived in, offering a fascinating portrait of a remarkable individual who remained actively engaged in international affairs throughout his life. This revealing work not only explains Einstein’s theories in understandable terms, it demonstrates how they directly emerged from the realities of his times and helped create the world we live in today. [From the Publisher]https://cupola.gettysburg.edu/books/1089/thumbnail.jp

Теоретичні основи електротехніки[

The Theory of Electrical Engineering is presented in three parts: the Basic Theories of Steady-State and Transients in Electrical Circuits and the Basic Theory of Electromagnetic Field. For students of electrotechnical specialties of higher educational establishments, as well as for scientific and technical specialists dealing with modern problems in the theory and practice of electric power engineering and electromechanics.Викладено теоретичні основи електротехніки в трьох частинах: теорія стаціонарних процесів в електричних колах, теорія перехідних процесів в електричних колах і теорія електромагнітного поля. Для студентів електротехнічних спеціальностей вищих навчальних закладів, а також для науково-технічних фахівців, що займаються сучасними проблемами в теорії і практиці електроенергетики та електромеханіки

Dynamics of Current, Charge and Mass

Electricity plays a special role in our lives and life. Equations of electron dynamics are nearly exact and apply from nuclear particles to stars. These Maxwell equations include a special term the displacement current (of vacuum). Displacement current allows electrical signals to propagate through space. Displacement current guarantees that current is exactly conserved from inside atoms to between stars, as long as current is defined as Maxwell did, as the entire source of the curl of the magnetic field. We show how the Bohm formulation of quantum mechanics allows easy definition of current. We show how conservation of current can be derived without mention of the polarization or dielectric properties of matter. Matter does not behave the way physicists of the 1800's thought it does with a single dielectric constant, a real positive number independent of everything. Charge moves in enormously complicated ways that cannot be described in that way, when studied on time scales important today for electronic technology and molecular biology. Life occurs in ionic solutions in which charge moves in response to forces not mentioned or described in the Maxwell equations, like convection and diffusion. Classical derivations of conservation of current involve classical treatments of dielectrics and polarization in nearly every textbook. Because real dielectrics do not behave in a classical way, classical derivations of conservation of current are often distrusted or even ignored. We show that current is conserved exactly in any material no matter how complex the dielectric, polarization or conduction currents are. We believe models, simulations, and computations should conserve current on all scales, as accurately as possible, because physics conserves current that way. We believe models will be much more successful if they conserve current at every level of resolution, the way physics does.Comment: Version 4 slight reformattin