Factors and Business Impacts in Human-Computer Negotiations

Negotiation commonly takes place where there are competing interests. Negotiations require a substantial amount of cognitive effort and time commitment. Artificial Intelligence (AI) has recently been experiencing a dramatic rise. AI and computer agents may significantly affect how negotiations are conducted. Agents can exhibit human-like behavior and follow the preferences of the principals and predefined strategies, goals, and constraints. For example, some companies already used computer sales assistant to help customers and even negotiate the price and other features online. The purpose of this thesis is to contribute to the transformation of the negotiation process from human vs human to human vs computer, in the context of e-commerce. By investigating various factors that influence human-computer negotiations and the impact of these factors on negotiation outcomes, the current thesis can shed light on the cognitive process underneath human-computer negotiation in the context of online purchasing. The work of this thesis is organized into three major components. As its first component, this thesis conducted a thorough search of state-of-the-art literature on human-computer negotiation and proposed a framework for future studies. Based on prior research, a list of various kinds of computer agent attributes that may influence negotiation results and the relationships between these factors and negotiation outcomes were proposed. In addition to computer agents’ attributes, this essay included past literature that studied human participants’ individual differences and the influence of such differences. Based on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), this essay investigated the development of human-computer negotiation and human participants’ acceptance and perception of a computer agent. At the end of the first essay, an overall research framework is presented. Based on the framework of essay 1, an experiment was conducted in essay 2 to investigate how various agent strategies, tactics and configurations influence the outcomes of negotiations. Specifically, essay 2 investigated the effects of negotiation tactics (concession pattern/curve), synchronous vs. asynchronous modes, and solution-search mechanisms (search between multiple issues or dive into one issue at a time) on the subjective and objective outcomes of human-computer negotiations. A 3×2×2 experiment was conducted where the subjects could negotiate the purchase of a mobile plan with computer agents acting as sellers. In this experiment, three time-based negotiation concession patterns and two solution-search mechanisms were employed in synchronous vs. asynchronous mode. On the other hand, the negotiation results were evaluated from multiple levels. Specifically, not only the overall result at group level but also the result at individual level were included in this research. On the individual level, in addition to objective measurements, subjective measures of negotiation results, such as usefulness and intention to use, were also adopted. A model was generated and tested based on TAM and a so-called TIMES framework (Task, Individuals, Mechanism, Environment, and System). Essay 3 investigates a construct named “implicit power” and the influence of implicit power in the context of online purchasing where humans negotiate with computer agents. Implicit power refers to perceived power gained indirectly through hints in the exchange of offers. In most of the prior research, when researchers talked about power, they meant the kind of power that can be gained directly through communication during negotiation. But there is another kind of power that is implicitly perceived by the other party through ways other than communication and influences negotiations as well. After introducing implicit power, a model was built to test the influence of implicit power of both negotiation parties: humans and computers. Specifically, a 2×4×3 experiment was conducted. Several aspects of implicit power were studied, including anchoring, agent avatar image power, and the power of human subjects’ personality. In the experiment, the subjects negotiated the purchase of a laptop with computer agents acting as sellers. Two anchoring conditions and four different avatar images were used to test the influence of computer agents’ implicit power. As the source of human’s intrinsic power, the participant’s personality (Social Value Orientation) was also tested in three different types: prosocial, individualistic, and competitive. This research proposed the concept of implicit power and studied the influence of several kinds of implicit power. The model built in this research shows a good ability to explain the variance in the dependent variable (R-square: 0.44)

Collaborators and Competitors Negotiating in Gains and Losses

The economy is driven by everyday negotiations between sellers and buyers. Electronic Negotiation Systems (ENSs) are embedded with features and methods that help users better manage their negotiation processes, and work with their counterparts in order to achieve superior outcomes. As ENSs inevitably mediate the information exchange, the representation of this information plays a crucial role in decision support. Still, there is a lack of empirical research on ENSs, especially on the impact of information framing on the process, as well as on the outcomes of interactions. Research in this area is further complicated when the interactions of users with dissimilar motivations are taken into account. This project aims at investigating how framing by the ENS impacts the negotiation process and outcomes for different motivational orientations. It proposes a research framework that examines the effects of ENS framing of outcomes (i.e., as gains or losses) and motivational orientation (i.e., competitive or collaborative) on the negotiation process and consequences at the dyadic and individual levels. An experimental 2X2 factor design was used to test the underlying hypotheses, which: (1) examined the outcomes (i.e., higher joint outcome and contract balance) and the process (i.e., greater number of offers and cooperativeness) affected by different ENS frames for different motivational orientations; (2) contrasted the difference between the gain and loss frames for collaborative and competitive dyads; and (3) detailed the impact of ENS framing and motivational orientation on individual perceptions (i.e., cognitive effort, discussion climate, outcome satisfaction and relationship). The experiments were conducted in two environments (laboratory with 276 and quasi-field with 490 participants) to increase external validity of the results. In general, the findings showed that: (1) collaborative dyads have higher joint outcome in the loss than gain frame, while the opposite was found for competitive ones (i.e., higher joint outcome in the gain rather than loss frame); (2) the impacts of ENS framing was stronger for collaborative dyads; (3) loss frame caused less disparities in terms of number of offers and joint outcome between the two orientations; and (4) negotiators did not perceive any differences of framing despite the dissimilarities in objective measures (e.g., joint outcome and number of offers)

Verhandlungen in der Landwirtschaft

Verhandeln ist für Landwirte eine alltägliche Managementtätigkeit, die den Unternehmenserfolg unmittelbar bestimmt. In der landwirtschaftlichen Forschung sind Verhandlungen bisher jedoch nur ansatzweise behandelt worden, so dass kein systematisches Wissen über Verhandlungen in der Landwirtschaft vorhanden ist. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist daher, das Verhandlungsverhalten von Landwirten zu erfassen und wesentliche Elemente landwirtschaftlicher Verhandlungen zu identifizieren und zu beschreiben. Dazu wurden drei Verhandlungsmodelle aus der Literatur für das vorliegende Forschungsvorhaben modifiziert. Mittels empirischer Untersuchungen (Fokusgruppen, Befragungen, Beobachtungen, Experimente) in Schleswig-Holstein wurden wesentliche Elemente landwirtschaftlicher Verhandlungen beschrieben und die Verhandlungsmodelle auf ihre Praxisrelevanz und ihren Erklärungsgehalt über-prüft. Die Untersuchungen der Verhandlungsleistungen von Landwirten ergeben ei-nen deutlichen Schulungsbedarf

Conflict and sustainable development: the case of the great Limpompo Transfrontier Park (GLTP), Southern Africa

Conflict is inevitable but sustainable development is achievable. An analysis of the mix between development and conflict in two communities revealed the imperatives needed to strike a balance between conflict and sustainable development. While conflicts over natural resources are neither a new phenomenon nor are they inevitable, it is the approaches adopted to manage them that generate interests and makes a difference between peace and violence. Thus, conflicts associated with wilderness or TFCA development initiatives such as the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park (GLTP) have attracted significant interest from various stakeholders. While the GLTP is a flagship conservation initiative in Southern Africa designed to integrate different land uses for socio-economic development, it is littered with conflicts. Through documenting the experiences of two communities involved in development conflicts, a determination was sought to understand the efficacy of approaches used to manage the conflict. Using mainly questionnaires and personal interviews, perceptions and attitudes of key informants were solicited. Unresolved historical problems reincarnated to haunt current conservation projects as memories of unresolved past events reflected negatively on new related initiatives. Different approaches adopted in managing these conflicts resulted in significantly different outcomes. Local stakeholder involvements were inadequate, but were identified as pertinent to successful sustainable conservation and development. Unless local communities are assured of real benefits from new conservation initiatives it became evident that recurrent conflicts would be inevitable. The findings reveal that current conservation initiatives should be underpinned by emerging inclusivity theories in the conservation discourse. A broad range of stakeholders should embrace this new paradigm based on the philosophy that conservation efforts that exclude local communities are bound to be unsustainable. We found out that it is in the interests of all for policy makers to come up with policies that recognise the critical role local communities play, while subscribing to the regional and international standards for best practices in the conservation business

Managing for Sustainable Development Impact

This guide is about managing development initiatives and organizations towardssustainable development impact. It builds on the work of Guijt and Woodhill inthe 2002 IFAD publication Managing for Impact in Rural Development: A Guide for Project M&E. Since then, the managing for sustainable development impact (m4sdi) approach has evolved with insights and feedback from CDI colleagues, clients, partners, and over 800 people who have been trained in its use. In addition, the authors have drawn on the work of many others.M4SDI is an integrated, results-oriented management approach, which can beused across a range of sectors and domains in a variety of contexts, and aimsto contribute towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It seeks tointegrate ideas and practices from a range of approaches and methodologies forplanning, monitoring and evaluation, using appropriate methods or tools thatengage people in a process of learning and adaptation. It is specifically aimedat strengthening the readiness of leaders, decision-makers and developmentpractitioners to effectively manage their initiatives/organizations in complexsettings. m4sdi belongs to a special niche of management approaches, providingrelevant perspectives on what makes for effective management for those directlyinvolved in managing initiatives/organizations and wider groups of stakeholders.Many of the people trained in m4sdi have become believers and practitionersof the approach because it addresses several of the most serious concerns indevelopment, such as the difficulty in reaching primary stakeholders, designingeffective strategies and related monitoring and evaluation (M&E), focusing oncapacity development and change management, and achieving sustainabledevelopment impact. The strength of m4sdi lies in its people-centred approach and how it seeks to integrate management processes within a complex environment.The evolvement of the approach needs to be documented to share lessons learned and support capacity development. And so the principles and practices covered in this guide relate to a variety of development initiatives/organizations in the fields of agriculture, food security, local economic development, value chains, Enterprise development, and ecosystem governance. Much of the discussion takes place within the often complex context of development. As such, the guide aims to find a good balance between comprehensiveness and the principle of ‘less is more’.</p