2DEG electrodes for piezoelectric transduction of AlGaN/GaN MEMS resonators

A 2D electron gas (2DEG) interdigitated transducer (IDT) in Gallium Nitride (GaN) resonators is introduced and demonstrated. This metal-free transduction does not suffer from the loss mechanisms associated with more commonly used metal electrodes. As a result, this transducer can be used for both the direct interrogation of GaN electromechanical properties and the realization of high Q resonators. A 1.2 GHz bulk acoustic resonator with mechanical Q of 1885 is demonstrated, with frequency quality factor product (f·Q) of 2.3×10[superscript 12], the highest measured in GaN to date

Depletionâ mediated piezoelectric AlGaN/GaN resonators

Peer Reviewedhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/134894/1/pssa201532746_am.pdfhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/134894/2/pssa201532746.pd

Piezoelectric response to coherent longitudinal and transverse acoustic phonons in a semiconductor Schottky diode

We study the generation of microwave electronic signals by pumping a (311) GaAs Schottky diode with compressive and shear acoustic phonons, generated by femtosecond optical excitation of an Al _lm transducer and mode conversion at the Al-GaAs interface. They propagate through the substrate and arrive at the Schottky device on the opposite surface, where they induce a microwave electronic signal. The arrival time, amplitude and polarity of the signals depend on the phonon mode. A theoretical analysis is made of the polarity of the experimental signals. This includes the piezoelectric and deformation potential mechanisms of electron-phonon interaction in a Schottky contact and shows that the piezoelectric mechanism is dominant for both transverse and longitudinal modes with frequencies below 250 GHz and 70 GHz respectively

Gallium Nitride Resonators for Infrared Detector Arrays and Resonant Acoustoelectric Amplifiers.

This work presents the first comprehensive utilization of Gallium Nitride (GaN) in high-performance, high-frequency micromechanical resonators. It presents characterization of critical electromechanical properties of GaN and validation of high-performance designs. The primary motivation behind this project is the use of GaN resonators as sensitive, low-noise, uncooled infrared (IR) detectors. IR response of micromechanical resonators is based on radiative absorption and a consequent shift in its resonant frequency. Mechanical resonators are expected to perform better than contemporary uncooled IR detectors as the noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) is primarily limited by each resonator’s thermomechanical noise, which is smaller than resistive bolometers. GaN is an ideal material for resonant IR detection as it combines piezoelectric, pyroelectric, and electrostrictive properties that lead to a high IR sensitivity up to -2000 ppm/K (~ 100× higher than other materials). To further improve IR absorption efficiency, we developed two thin-film absorbers: a carbon nanotube (CNT)-polymer nanocomposite material with broad-spectrum absorption efficiency (> 95%) and a plasmonic absorber with narrow-spectrum absorption (> 45% for a select wavelength) integrated on the resonator. Designs have also been successfully implemented using GaN-on-Si, aluminum nitride (AlN), AlN-on-Si, and lead-zirconate-titanate (PZT), and fabricated both in-house and using commercial foundry processes. Resonant IR detectors, sense-reference pairs, and small-format arrays (16 elements) are successfully implemented with NETD values of 10 mK, and ~1 ms-10 ms response times. This work also presents the first measurements and analysis of an exciting, fairly unexplored phenomenon: the amplification of acoustic standing waves in GaN resonators using electrical energy, boosting the quality factor (Q) and reducing energy losses in the resonator. This phenomenon is based on phonon-electron interactions in piezoelectric semiconductors. Under normal conditions this interaction is a loss mechanism for acoustic energy, but as we discovered and consistently demonstrated, it can be reversed to provide acoustoelectric amplification (resulting in Q-amplification of up to 35%). We present corroborated analytical and experimental results that describe the phonon-electron loss/gain in context with other loss mechanisms in piezoelectric semiconductor resonators. Research into this effect can potentially yield insights into fundamental solid-state physics and lead to a new class of acoustoelectric resonant amplifiers.PhDElectrical EngineeringUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/108759/1/vikrantg_1.pd

Design and packaging of an iron-gallium (Galfenol) nanowire acoustic sensor for underwater applications

A novel acoustic sensor incorporating cilia-like nanowires made of magnetostrictive iron-gallium (Galfenol) alloy has been designed and fabricated using micromachining techniques. The sensor and its package design are analogous to the structural design and the transduction process of a human-ear cochlea. The nanowires are sandwiched between a flexible membrane and a fixed membrane similar to the cilia between basilar and tectorial membranes in the cochlea. The stress induced in the nanowires due to the motion of the flexible membrane in response to acoustic waves results in a change in the magnetic flux in the nanowires. These changes in the magnetic flux are converted into electrical voltage changes by a GMR (giant magnetoresistive) sensor. As the acoustic sensor is designed for underwater applications, packaging is a key issue for the effective working of this sensor. A good package should provide a suitably protective environment to the sensor, while allowing sound waves to reach the sensing element with a minimal attenuation. In this thesis, design efforts aimed at producing this MEMS bio-inspired acoustic transducer have been detailed along with the process sequence for its fabrication. Package materials including encapsulants and filler fluids have been identified based on their acoustic performance in water by conducting several experiments to compare their impedance and attenuation characteristics and moisture absorption properties. Preliminary test results of the sensor without nanowires demonstrate the process is practical for constructing a nanowire based acoustic sensor, yielding potential benefits for SONAR applications and hearing implants

Nanoelectromechanical systems

Nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are drawing interest from both technical and scientific communities. These are electromechanical systems, much like microelectromechanical systems, mostly operated in their resonant modes with dimensions in the deep submicron. In this size regime, they come with extremely high fundamental resonance frequencies, diminished active masses,and tolerable force constants; the quality (Q) factors of resonance are in the range Q~10^3–10^5—significantly higher than those of electrical resonant circuits. These attributes collectively make NEMS suitable for a multitude of technological applications such as ultrafast sensors, actuators, and signal processing components. Experimentally, NEMS are expected to open up investigations of phonon mediated mechanical processes and of the quantum behavior of mesoscopic mechanical systems. However, there still exist fundamental and technological challenges to NEMS optimization. In this review we shall provide a balanced introduction to NEMS by discussing the prospects and challenges in this rapidly developing field and outline an exciting emerging application, nanoelectromechanical mass detection

Based acoustic waves microsensor for the detection of bacteria in complex liquid media

Cette thèse s’inscrit dans le cadre d’une cotutelle internationale entre l’Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté en France et l’Université de Sherbrooke au Canada. Elle porte sur le développement d'un biocapteur miniature pour la détection et la quantification de bactéries dans des milieux liquides complexes. La bactérie visée est l’Escherichia coli (E. coli), régulièrement mise en cause dans des épidémies d'infections alimentaires, et parfois meurtrière. La géométrie du biocapteur consiste en une membrane en arséniure de gallium (GaAs) sur laquelle est déposé un film mince piézoélectrique d’oxyde de zinc (ZnO). L'apport du ZnO structuré en couche mince constitue un réel atout pour atteindre de meilleures performances du transducteur piézoélectrique et consécutivement une meilleure sensibilité de détection. Une paire d'électrodes déposée sur le film de ZnO permet de générer, sous une tension sinusoïdale, des ondes acoustiques se propageant dans le GaAs, à une fréquence donnée. La face arrière de la membrane, quant à elle, est fonctionnalisée avec une monocouche auto-assemblée (SAM) d'alkanethiols et des anticorps contre l’E. coli, conférant la spécificité de la détection. Ainsi, le biocapteur bénéficie à la fois des technologies de microfabrication et de bio-fonctionnalisation du GaAs, déjà validées au sein de l’équipe de recherche, et des propriétés piézoélectriques prometteuses du ZnO, afin d’atteindre potentiellement une détection hautement sensible et spécifique de la bactérie d’intérêt. Le défi consiste à pouvoir détecter et quantifier cette bactérie à de très faibles concentrations dans un échantillon liquide et/ou biologique complexe. Les travaux de recherche ont en partie porté sur les dépôts et caractérisations de couches minces piézoélectriques de ZnO sur des substrats de GaAs. L’effet de l’orientation cristalline du GaAs ainsi que l’utilisation d’une couche intermédiaire de Platine entre le ZnO et le GaAs ont été étudiés par différentes techniques de caractérisation structurale (diffraction des rayons X, spectroscopie Raman, spectrométrie de masse à ionisation secondaire), topographique (microscopie à force atomique), optique (ellipsométrie) et électrique. Après la réalisation des contacts électriques, la membrane en GaAs a été usinée par gravure humide. Une fois fabriqué, le transducteur a été testé en air et en milieu liquide par des mesures électriques, afin de déterminer les fréquences de résonance pour les modes de cisaillement d’épaisseur. Un protocole de bio-fonctionnalisation de surface, validé au sein du laboratoire, a été appliqué à la face arrière du biocapteur pour l’ancrage des SAMs et des anticorps, tout en protégeant la face avant. De plus, les conditions de greffage d’anticorps en termes de concentration utilisée, pH et durée d’incubation, ont été étudiées, afin d’optimiser la capture de bactérie. Par ailleurs, l’impact du pH et de la conductivité de l’échantillon à tester sur la réponse du biocapteur a été déterminé. Les performances du biocapteur ont été évaluées par des tests de détection de la bactérie cible, E. coli, tout en corrélant les mesures électriques avec celles de fluorescence. Des tests de détection ont été réalisés en variant la concentration d’E. coli dans des milieux de complexité croissante. Différents types de contrôles ont été réalisés pour valider les critères de spécificité. En raison de sa petite taille, de son faible coût de fabrication et de sa réponse rapide, le biocapteur proposé pourrait être potentiellement utilisé dans les laboratoires de diagnostic clinique pour la détection d’E. coli.Abstract: This thesis was conducted in the frame of an international collaboration between Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté in France and Université de Sherbrooke in Canada. It addresses the development of a miniaturized biosensor for the detection and quantification of bacteria in complex liquid media. The targeted bacteria is Escherichia coli (E. coli), regularly implicated in outbreaks of foodborne infections, and sometimes fatal. The adopted geometry of the biosensor consists of a gallium arsenide (GaAs) membrane with a thin layer of piezoelectric zinc oxide (ZnO) on its front side. The contribution of ZnO structured in a thin film is a real asset to achieve better performances of the piezoelectric transducer and consecutively a better sensitivity of the detection. A pair of electrodes deposited on the ZnO film allows the generation of acoustic waves propagating in GaAs under a sinusoidal voltage, at a given frequency. The backside of the membrane is functionalized with a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) of alkanethiols and antibodies against E. coli, providing the specificity of the detection. Thus, the biosensor benefits from the microfabrication and bio-functionalization technologies of GaAs, validated within the research team, and the promising piezoelectric properties of ZnO, to potentially achieve a highly sensitive and specific detection of the bacteria of interest. The challenge is to be able to detect and quantify these bacteria at very low concentrations in a complex liquid and/or biological sample. The research work was partly focused on the deposition and characterization of piezoelectric ZnO thin films on GaAs substrates. The effect of the crystalline orientation of GaAs and the use of a titanium/platinum buffer layer between ZnO and GaAs were studied using different structural (X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, secondary ionization mass spectrometry), topographic (atomic force microscopy), optical (ellipsometry) and electrical characterizations. After the realization of the electrical contacts on top of the ZnO film, the GaAs membrane was micromachined using chemical wet etching. Once fabricated, the transducer was tested in air and liquid medium by electrical measurements, in order to determine the resonance frequencies for thickness shear mode. A protocol for surface bio-functionalization, validated in the laboratory, was applied to back side of the biosensor for anchoring SAMs and antibodies, while protecting the top side. Furthermore, different conditions of antibody immobilization such as the concentration, pH and incubation time, were tested to optimize the immunocapture of bacteria. In addition, the impact of the pH and the conductivity of the solution to be tested on the response of the biosensor has been determined. The performance of the biosensor was evaluated by detection tests of the targeted bacteria, E. coli, while correlating electrical measurements with fluorescence microscopy. Detection tests were completed by varying the concentration of E. coli in environments of increasing complexity. Various types of controls were performed to validate the specificity criteria. Thanks to its small size, low cost of fabrication and rapid response, the proposed biosensor has the potential of being applied in clinical diagnostic laboratories for the detection of E. coli