Language variation in South Africa: A sociophonetic study of the vowel system of Black South African English

The core of this work is a sociophonetic examination of the vowel system of Black South African English (BSAE), the most spoken English variety in South Africa. BSAE is defined as the second language variety of speakers whose mother tongue is one of the Bantu languages indigenous to South Africa. It is characterised by a five-vowel system as a result of the transfer of linguistic properties from the indigenous languages. Apart from that, the effects of racial segregation formed a relatively homogeneous variety. In the early 1990s, a political transformation took place, which led to the abolishment of apartheid. In a more liberal sociopolitical climate allowing interactions between people of different ethnicities, an English sub-variety within BSAE has emerged whose phonology differs markedly from older forms. The present work documents the phonology of stressed monophthongs of post-apartheid BSAE as realised by a socially stratified sample of 44 speakers of different age groups. It was assumed that young speakers would differ significantly in their pronunciation from other participants. Data collection took place in South Africa in 2013. The sample consisted of 21 females and 23 males. The participants were divided into three age groups named young N=20), middle (N=17) and older (N=7). They were audio-recorded in three speech styles with different degrees of formality: interview style (IN), reading style (ReP) and wordlist/citation style (WL). This setup was employed to determine the number of distinct vowels of BSAE, to determine durational differences between prescriptively tense and lax vowels and to investigate the possible influence of linguistic and social factors on the variation in BSAE. Around 14,000 tokens of Lobanov-normalised formant values were extracted and subjected to descriptive and analytical statistics. Each vowel cluster was analysed for the frequency of the formants F1 and F2 and for vowel duration. Vowel overlap was calculated with the Bhattacharyya coefficient and the Pillai score. Vowel length was compared by normalised vowel duration. The regression analysis was carried out with linear mixed effects models. Random factors in each regression run were speaker and word label. The fixed factors, i.e. the variables examined, were phoneme/lexical set, phonological context, spelling, speech style, vowels in L1 language family, gender and age group. The fixed factors can be divided into linguistic factors (phoneme, phonological context, spelling, speech style and number of vowels in L1) and social factors (gender and age group). Regarding vowel quality, the fixed factors were phoneme (selection according to the vowel cluster), spelling (for the analysis of NURSE, STRUT and FOOT), speech style (IN, ReP, WL), number of vowels in L1 (5, 7), gender (male, female), age group (young, middle, older) and phonological context. The factor phonological context was divided into prevocalic context and adjacent context. The prevocalic context included the variants coronals and non-coronals. For the analysis of GOOSE, the variant J-words was added. The analysis of KIT contained the variable adjacent context with the variants high front and centralised. Regarding vowel duration, the fixed factors were those above. Again, of the preceding context, the variants coronals and non-coronals were always included as well as J-words for the analysis of goose. Apart from that, following voicing (voiced, voiceless, pause/gap) and following manner (fricative, plosive, affricate, pause/gap) were added. The variable number of vowels in L1 was excluded. Across all variables, the results show a general presence of the tense/lax distinction. Of the linguistic variables, speech style was the most decisive, showing that most participants differentiated between formal style (WL) on the one hand and less formal (ReP) and casual style (IN) on the other. The number of vowels in L1 showed no significant results whatsoever. The social variable age group had the biggest influence on both vowel quality and quantity. The young age group differed significantly from the middle and older group. The young speakers showed also the greatest variation ranging from complete vowel overlap to clear vowel distinction. The social variable gender rarely yielded significant results. The KIT split, mainly reported for White South African English (WSAE), was performed by speakers of all age groups and genders. Young speakers and females, however, showed a higher degree of KIT split compared to the middle and older age group and males. The same applies to GOOSE fronting. Formerly an exclusive feature of WSAE, it could be observed in all age groups and genders but with the young and females ahead of their counterparts. A closer look at the young group, however, showed that there were only six speakers responsible for this outcome. They employed an acrolectal inventory of eleven vowels. The remaining 14 young speakers along with all speakers of the middle and older age group formed the subsample of mesolectal speakers and exhibited a five-vowel system plus one emerging vowel. It can be concluded that in the mesolect, where all three age groups are represented, the phonemes are stable in apparent time. It can also be concluded that educated BSAE is majorly mesolectal. Finally, although only a small number of young speakers differed from all other participants, it is proposed that the emergence of a new form of BSAE is due to the new political order of an unsegregated South African society

Employability and Communication Skills : Triangulating Views of Employers, Lecturers and Undergraduates

Employability skills are known as soft skills and transferrable skills. Employability refers to skills, understandings, and personal attributes that increase graduates’ chances of employment and success in their chosen occupations (Yorke, 2004). Some of the skills listed under employability skills are resourcefulness, adaptability, and flexibility which are not only needed for adapting to work situations (Curtis & McKenzie, 2002). In a VUCA (volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity) environment, there is a limit to what universities can equip graduates with, and they need to be able to continue learning to adjust to new situations and demands. According to the Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) in the USA (1992), employability skills can be divided into four clusters of basic skills, thinking skills, personal qualities, and workplace competence. These skills would give them an edge during interviews and increase their chances of getting employed. Malaysia has been experiencing graduate unemployability. Approximately 60% of graduates remain unemployed for minimum of a year after graduation (“Graduate Employability”, 2020). There are many factors that contribute to graduate unemployability such as lack of experience, language proficiency, communication skills, problem-solving skills, and critical thinking skills (Hanapi & Nordin, 2014; Lim et al., 2016; Nooriah & Zakiah, 2017; Ooi & Ting, 2017). Employers often specify good communication skills and interpersonal skills as top requirements in job advertisements (Bakar et al., 2007; Ooi & Ting, 2017). However, graduates lack problem solving skills, communication skills (Hanapi & Nordin, 2014) and technical knowledge (Lim et al., 2016). In a knowledge-based economy, employees need to be independent and self-motivated (Menand, 2014) to acquire the necessary knowledge, information and high skill levels to cope with the fast pace of technological change. There is currently scarcity of findings on whether universities and students are preparing themselves appropriately to meet the expectations of employers. The study investigated importance of employability and communication skills based on the views of employers, lecturers and students. The research questions were: (1) how good are university students in their employability and communication skills? and (2) do employers and lecturers agree on the most important skills an effective employee should have? The descriptive study involved the use of a questionnaire on employability skills and language skills (listening and speaking, reading and writing). The items were formulated using a five-point rating scale of (1) not at all, (2) to some extent, (3) just enough, (4) to a reasonable extent, and (5) to a great extent. In addition, the questionnaire required lecturers and employers to select the top 10 skills out of the 25 skills listed. The data were collected from 123 students, 26 lecturers from a public university, and 26 employers in Sarawak, East Malaysia. The students were mostly female (74.80% female, 25.20% male) and had weak to moderate language proficiency, measured using the Malaysian University English Test (MUET). There were slightly more males among lecturers (12 female, 14 male) and employers (11 female, 15 male). The average years of work experience for lecturers was 8.7 (range: 1-25) and for employers, the average was 5.6 (range: 1-15). For the analysis, means and frequencies were calculated for comparison of the three perspectives on the importance of communication and employability skills. The results showed that there was a difference among employers, lecturers, and students in their ratings of how good university students are in their employability and communication skills. The students overrated themselves in all three set of skills. Based on the mean scores, the students rated themselves as having a moderate level of employability (M=3.74), reading and writing skills (M=3.75), and listening and speaking skills (M=3.61). The lecturers rated the university students as having a moderate level of skills as well, but the mean scores were slightly lower than the students’ (employability, M= 3.54; reading and writing skills, M=3.49; listening and speaking skills, M=3.29). To the employers, only the fresh graduates’ listening and speaking skills were moderate but on the weak side (M=3.15). The employers found the fresh graduates’ reading and writing skills (M=2.97) and listening and speaking skills (M=2.92) to be slightly weak. Interestingly, the students and lecturers rated the graduates’ employability skills to be moderate but the employers considered them to be weak. Another contrast was the students’ listening and speaking skills, which the students and lecturers considered to be the lowest level, compared to employability and reading and writing skills. However, the employers considered the fresh graduates’ listening and speaking skills to be better than the other two skills. This comparison shows that there is a mismatch in the ratings of university students’ employability and communication skills given by employers, lecturers, and students. The employers’ expectation was higher than the lecturers’. In other words, most employers expect students to be ready to handle the demands of the workforce upon graduation but sadly, most graduates fell short of their expectations. The employers may feel that they have to spoon feed the graduates on various matters upon graduation and they prefer employees who have a strong set of communication and employability skills. Next, the results on the ranking of the important skills an effective employee should have also showed a mismatch in the perspectives of employers and lecturers. To the employers, the top two skills were time management and problem-solving aptitude, both of which were employability skills. To the lecturers, the top two skills were leadership qualities and teamwork spirit, which were also employability skills. The employers prioritised skills for efficient handling of work situations to meet deadlines but the lecturers focussed on skills for the completion of group work. The mismatch shows that lecturers and universities may have overlooked the need to train students to be versatile to solve problems and complete projects on time. Indeed, students often submit work late and are not independent enough to resolve questions concerning their projects on their own, and constantly have to consult lecturers. To increase graduate employability, universities need to collaborate strategically with the industry to resolve the mismatch of expectations, as other Malaysian studies have also found a mismatch (Nadarajah, 2021; Nesaratnam et al., 2020). However, because of the fast-changing work environment, students need to develop lifelong learning skills so that they can develop their expertise, knowledge base, and a lifelong learning mindset to stay relevant. References Bakar, A. R., Mohamed, S., & Hanafi, I. (2007). Employability skills: Malaysian employers perspectives. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 2(1), 263-274. Curtis, D. D., & McKenzie, P. (2002). Employability skills for Australian industry: Literature review and framework development. http://www.voced.edu.au/content/ngv33428 Graduate employability: A priority of the Education Ministry. (2020, February 18). News Straits Times. https://www.nst.com.my/news/nation/2020/02/566731/graduate-employability-priority-education-ministry Hanapi, Z., & Nordin, M. S. (2014). Unemployment among Malaysia graduates: Graduates’ attributes, lecturers’ competency and quality of education. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 112, 1056-1063. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.1269 Lim, Y. M, Teck, H. L., Ching, S. Y., & Chui, C. L. (2016). Employability skills, personal qualities, and early employment problems of entry-level auditors: Perspectives from employers, lecturers, auditors, and students. Journal of Education for Business, 91(4), 185-192. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2016.1153998 Menand, H. (2014). Critical instruction, student achievement, and nurturing of global citizens: Global and comparative education in context. In S. A. Lawrence (Ed.), Critical practice in P-12 education (pp. 1-23). Hershey: Information Science Reference. Nadarajah, J. (2021). Measuring the gap in employability skills among Malaysian graduates. International Journal of Modern Trends in Social Sciences, 4(15), 81-87. https://doi.org/10.35631/IJMTSS.415007 Nesaratnam, S., Salleh, W. H. W., Foo, Y. V., Hisham, W. M. W. S. W. (2020). Enhancing English proficiency and communication skills among Malaysian graduates through training and coaching. International Journal of Learning and Development, 10(4), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijld.v10i4.17875 Nooriah, Y., & Zakiah, J. (2017). Development of graduates employability: The role of university and challenges. Jurnal Personalia Pelajar, 20, 15-32. Ooi, K. B., & Ting, S. H. (2015). Employers’ emphasis on technical skills and soft skills in job advertisements. The English Teacher, 44(1), 1-12. Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) (1992). Learning a living: a blueprint for high performance. A SCANS report for America 2000. Washington: U.S. Department of Labour. Yorke, M. (2004). Employability in higher education: what it is – what it is not. York: The Higher Education Academy/ESECT

The tablet teacher: learning literacy through technology in Northern Sotho

This study evaluates the efficacy of the Bridges to the Future Initiative - South Africa 2 (BFI) tablet program on early literacy skills, as well as the ways in which learner-operated technology interacts with a traditional South African education system. The BFI is a curriculum-aligned early literacy development intervention implemented through technology in grades 2 and 3 in Northern Sotho1 first-language schools. A mixed-methods research design was utilized, involving three components: a literacy skills test administered through a time sequence trial design; a curriculum-aligned uptake and retention test using a pre-post design; and a qualitative research component including classroom observation, participant interviews and prompted drawings by learners. Paired sample t-tests show significantly higher gains during the treatment period in fluency and comprehension, and significantly higher gains in the control period in decoding individual words. It is theorized that this is due to teacher emphasis on emergent literacy. When initial ability is taken into consideration, all ability levels gain more on average during the treatment period in at least one measured skill. Regression analysis determines that time spent on the BFI program is not the most significant determiner of gains in the intervention period. Qualitative analysis supports this finding and suggests that program use cannot replace quality classroom practice in advancing literacy skills. Learners performed better after a delayed retention period than in an initial uptake test, indicating high rates of retention of knowledge gained through program use and traditional instruction, but inconsistent access to literacy skills gained