Polymer based microfabrication and its applications in optical MEMS and bioMEMS

Due to its ease of fabrication, low cost and great variety of functionalities, polymer has become an important material in microfabrication. MEMS devices with polymer as the structure material have found applications in various fields, especially in BioMEMS and optical MEMS. In this dissertation, three polymer based microfabricated devices/components have been developed and tested. Various polymer based fabrication techniques, such as high aspect ratio SU-8 photolithography, three dimensional polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) soft lithography, multi-layer soft lithography and PDMS double casting technique have been developed/studied and employed in the device fabrication process. The main contribution of this dissertation includes: (1) Developed two novel methods for the fabrication of out-of-plane microlens. The PDMS and UV curable polymer (NOA73) replication technique made possible the fast replication of out-of-plane microlens and broaden the lens material selection. The in-situ pneumatical microlens fabrication technique, on the other hand, provides feasible method to integrate out-of-plane microlens into microfluidic chips requiring minimal design footprint and fabrication complexity. (2) Design, fabrication and test of a microchip flow cytometer with 3-D hydrofocusing chamber and integrated out-of-plane microlens as on-chip optical detection component. The developed micro flow cytometer offers 3-D hydrofocusing like conventional cytometer cuvette, and has on-chip microlens for optical signal collection to improve the detection efficiency. With the latest design improvement, the hydrofocusing chamber can focus the sample stream down to less than 10 m in diameter in both vertical and horizontal directions. (3) Development of a PDMS microchip based platform for multiplex immunoassay applications. Integrated micro valves were employed for manipulation of fluidic reagents in the microchannel network. PDMS surface was used as the solid phase substrate for immuno-reactions. Preliminary results showed that, even with low cost polyclonal goat anti-mouse IgG as the reporter antibody, the detection limit of goat mouse IgG can reach as low as 5 ng/mL (about 33 pM). With the continuous advance in microfabrcation technique and polymer science, polymer based microfabrication and polymer MEMS devices will keep to evolve. In the future, more work needs to be done in this field with great potential and endless innovations

Optical Fluid-based Photonic And Display Devices

Conventional solid-state photonic devices exhibit an ultra-high optical performance and durability, but minimal adaptability. Recently, optical fluid-based photonic and display devices are emerging. By dynamically manipulating the optical interface formed by liquids, the optical output can be reconfigured or adaptively tuned in real time. Such devices exhibit some unique characteristics that are not achievable in conventional solid-state photonic devices. Therefore, they open a gateway for new applications, such as image and signal processing, optical communication, sensing, and lab-on-a-chip, etc. Different operation principles of optical fluidbased photonic devices have been proposed, for instance fluidic pressure, electrochemistry, thermal effect, environmentally adaptive hydrogel, electro-wetting and dielectrophoresis. In this dissertation, several novel optical fluid-based photonic and display devices are demonstrated. Their working principles are described and electro-optic properties investigated. The first part involves photonic devices based on fluidic pressure. Here, we present a membrane-encapsulated liquid lens actuated by a photo-activated polymer. This approach paves a way to achieve non-mechanical driving and easy integration with other photonic devices. Next, we develop a mechanical-wetting lens for visible and short-wavelength infrared applications. Such a device concept can be extended to longer wavelength if proper liquids are employed. In the second part, we reveal some new photonic and display devices based on dielectrophoretic effects. We conceive a dielectric liquid microlens with well-shaped electrode for fixing the droplet position and lowering the operating voltage. To widen the dynamic range, we demonstrate an approach to enable focus tuning from negative to positive or vice versa in a single dielectric lens without any moving part. The possibility of fabricating microlens arrays iv with different aperture and density using a simple method is also proposed. Furthermore, the fundamental electro-optic characteristics of dielectric liquid droplets are studied from the aspects of operating voltage, frequency and droplet size. In addition to dielectric liquid lenses, we also demonstrate some new optical switches based on dielectrophoretic effect, e.g., optical switch based on voltage-stretchable liquid crystal droplet, variable aperture or position-shifting droplet. These devices work well in the visible and near infrared spectral ranges. We also extend this approach to display and show a polarizer-free and color filter-free display. Simple fabrication, low power consumption, polarization independence, relatively low operating voltage as well as reasonably fast switching time are their key features

Back-end processing of scanning mirrors with scratch drive actuators

The use of micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) processes in fabrication of micr- electro-mechanical devices for optical applications has been widespread. The invention of digital light processing (DLP) technology by Texas Instruments Inc. popularized the use of micro-mirrors. One of the applications of the micro-mirrors is in the form of scanners for biomedical imaging. The small size of mirrors and actuators makes them a good candidate for in vivo measurements/imaging. Various techniques in bulk- and surface-micromachining, and various actuators have been used to fabricate scanning mirrors. The scanning mirrors used in this work make use of scratch drive actuators (SDA) for their scanning motion. Both surface- and bulk-micromachining technologies are used to fabricate the devices. Surface-micromachining (Multi User MEMS Processes or MUMPs®) is used to fabricate scanning mirrors, and bulk-micromachining is used to separate dies, to create sloped sidewalls for efficient packaging and to make grooves for optical fibers. This work describes the techniques used in the post-MUMPs processing of the devices. The main features of the post-MUMPs processing are substrate etching and formation of insulating links. The presence of devices on the front side necessitates the use of a protection method in the substrate etching step. Polymers have drawn attention in recent years as protective materials due to their chemical stability as well as the ease of use. This thesis work utilizes poly dimethylsiloxane (PDMS) as a protection material, and examines the effect of PDMS process conditions on the quality of the protection. Protection for at least 10 hours was achieved in this work. The scanning mirror devices of this thesis work require non-conductive links between the actuators and the mirror. Thick photoresists such as AZ 4620, AZ 9260, SU-8 etc, are a good choice due to the ease in their patterning as well as their excellent insulating properties. This thesis documents the processes followed to achieve optimal link structures using thick photoresist (AZ 9260). The resist was optimally hard baked to make it chemically inert to common organic solvents

Actuation Of Droplets Using Transparent Graphene Electrodes For Tunable Lenses And Biomedical Applications

Variable focal length liquid microlenses are the next candidate for a wide variety of applications. Driving mechanism of the liquid lenses can be categorized into mechanical and electrical actuation. Among different actuation mechanisms, EWOD is the most common tool for actuation of the liquid lenses. In this dissertation, we have demonstrated versatile and low-cost miniature liquid lenses with graphene as electrodes. Tunable focal length is achieved by changing both curvature of the droplet using electrowetting on dielectric (EWOD) and applied pressure. Ionic liquid and KCl solution are utilized as lens liquid on the top of a flexible Teflon-coated PDMS/parylene membrane. Transparent and flexible, graphene allows transmission of visible light as well as large deformation of the polymer membrane to achieve requirements for different lens designs and to increase the field of view without damaging of electrodes. Another advantage of graphene compared to non-transparent electrodes is the larger lens aperture. The tunable range for the focal length is between 3 and 7 mm for a droplet with a volume of 3 μL. The visualization of bone marrow dendritic cells is demonstrated by the liquid lens system with a high resolution (more than 456 lp/mm). The Spherical aberration analysis is performed using COMSOL software to investigate the optical properties of the lens under applied voltages and pressure. We propose a prototype of compound eye with specific design of the electrodes using both tunable lenses and tunable supporting membrane. The design has many advantages including large field of view, compact size and fast response time. This work maybe applicable in the development of the next generation of cameras, endoscopes, cell phones on flexible platform. We also proposed here the design and concept of self-powered wireless sensor based on the graphene radio-frequency (RF) components, which are transparent, flexible, and monolithically integrated on biocompatible soft substrate. We show that a quad-ring circuit based on graphene transistors may simultaneously offer sensing and frequency modulation functions. This battery-free and transparent sensors based on newly discovered 2D nanomaterials may benefit versatile wireless sensing and internet-of-things applications, such as smart contact lenses/glasses and microscope slides

디스플레이 및 이미징 시스템으로의 응용을 위한 3D 프린팅 기반 맞춤형 광학 요소의 개발

학위논문 (박사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 공과대학 전기·정보공학부, 2021. 2. 홍용택.일반적으로 제조 공정은 절삭 방식과 적층 방식으로 구분된다. 이 중에서 적층 방식 공정은 저비용 및 단시간으로 복잡한 형태의 구조를 만들 수 있어서 이에 대한 연구와 개발이 꾸준히 진행되어왔다. 특히 3D 프린팅은 적층 방식 공정 중에서 가장 대표적인 방법으로, 기계 부품 및 생체 기관 제조 등의 분야에서는 이미 상용화가 진행되고 있다. 하지만 전자 소자 및 광학 요소 분야에서의 3D 프린팅의 활용은 여전히 연구 개발 또는 시제품 제작 단계에 머무르고 있다. 특히 마이크로 렌즈, 컬러 필터 등이 3D 프린팅으로 응용할 수 있는 가장 가능성 있는 광학 요소로서 디스플레이 및 이미징 시스템에 널리 사용될 것으로 예상되지만 여전히 상용화를 위한 연구가 진행 중이다. 또한 3D 프린팅을 이용한 광학 요소의 제작은 소재, 길이 스케일, 형상 및 응용 방안 등에서도 제한이 많은 상황이다. 따라서 이러한 문제를 극복하기 위해서는 디스플레이 및 이미징 시스템에서의 3D 프린팅 된 광학 요소의 유용성을 확장해야 하며, 다음과 같이 세 가지 측면에서 향상된 성능을 달성해야 한다. 첫째, 다양한 방식의 3D 프린팅 방법을 통해 마이크로미터에서 센티미터까지 광범위의 길이 스케일을 가지는 구조물의 제작이 가능해야 한다. 둘째, 임의의 곡면, 계층적 구조 등 복잡한 형상의 구조물을 쉽게 제작할 수 있어야 한다. 셋째, 단단한 소재 대신 탄성체와 같은 소프트 소재를 이용하여 광학적인 기능을 용이하게 조절할 수 있어야 한다. 이와 같은 동기를 바탕으로 본 학위 논문에서는 디스플레이 및 이미징 시스템으로의 응용을 위한 3D 프린팅 기반 맞춤형 광학 요소의 개발에 대한 내용을 보고한다. 3D 프린팅 기반 광학 요소를 매크로 스케일, 마이크로 스케일 그리고 매크로 및 마이크로 스케일이 혼합된 계층적 구조 등 세 가지 유형으로 분류하고 각각에 대한 응용 분야를 제시한다. 매크로 스케일의 광학 요소로는 가장 기본적인 요소인 렌즈와 거울을 선택한다. 렌즈는 공압식 디스펜싱 방법을 이용하여 실린드리컬 쌍 형태로 제작되었으며, 심리스 모듈러 평판식 디스플레이의 구현을 위해 적용된다. 또한 용융 적층 방식의 3D 프린팅으로 만들어진 몰드를 이용하여 거울을 제작하고, 이를 이용하여 심리스 모듈러 커브드 엣지 디스플레이를 구현한다. 이와 같이 모듈러 디스플레이의 이음새 부분에 3D 프린팅으로 제작된 렌즈 또는 거울을 부착하는 방식으로 화면을 심리스로 확장하는 기술을 제시하고, 다양한 형태의 디스플레이에 적용할 수 있는 가능성을 보여준다. 마이크로 스케일의 광학 요소로는 발광 다이오드에서 색 변환과 광 추출 기능을 동시에 나타내는 색 변환 마이크로 렌즈를 선택한다. 양자 점/광 경화성 고분자 복합체의 전기수력학적 프린팅을 통해 양자 점이 내장된 다양한 형태의 색 변환 마이크로 렌즈를 제작하며, 이를 청색 마이크로 발광 다이오드 어레이의 발광부 상에 적용하여 풀 컬러 마이크로 발광 다이오드 디스플레이로의 응용 가능성을 제시한다. 마지막으로 매크로 및 마이크로 스케일이 혼합된 계층적 구조의 광학 요소로서 디스펜싱 및 건식 러빙 과정의 조합으로 제작된 겹눈 형태를 모사한 렌즈 구조를 제시한다. 반구 형태의 매크로 렌즈를 디스펜싱으로 형성하고, 매크로 렌즈의 곡면 상에 단층의 마이크로 입자의 배열을 얻기 위해 건식 러빙 공정을 진행한다. 이러한 방식으로 형성된 계층적 구조가 소프트한 소재로 복제되어서 신축성을 가지는 겹눈 형태 모사 구조가 완성된다. 마이크로 렌즈 어레이는 매크로 렌즈의 표면을 따라 형성되고 리지드 아일랜드로 역할을 하여, 전체 계층적 구조에 기계적 변형이 가해져 매크로 렌즈의 모양이 변형되어도 마이크로 렌즈는 형상과 해상도, 초점 거리 등의 광학적 특성을 유지할 수 있다. 본 학위 논문은 3D 프린팅을 이용하여 다양한 형태와 스케일의 광학 요소를 제작하고 디스플레이 및 이미징 시스템으로의 여러 응용을 보여줌으로서 앞으로의 새로운 연구 및 개발 방향성을 제시하는 것을 주요 목적으로 한다. 3D 프린팅 설비의 단가가 낮아지고 정밀도 및 해상도가 높아지는 추세에 따라, 광학 요소를 쉽게 만들고 응용할 수 있는 맞춤형 광학 또는 스스로 구현하는 광학 분야가 변형 가능하고 멀티 스케일의 광학계로 점차 확대될 것으로 예상된다. 궁극적으로는 차세대 디스플레이 및 이미징 시스템에 필요한 광학 요소를 위한 기술의 저변을 넓히고, 이를 산업 전반에 응용할 수 있는 기반을 마련하고자 한다.Generally, the manufacturing process is divided into the subtractive (top-down) type and additive type (bottom-up). Among them, the additive manufacturing process has attracted a lot of attention because it can manufacture products with complex shapes in a low-cost and short-time process. In particular, three-dimensional (3D) printing is a representative method, which has already been commercialized in the field of mechanical components and biomedical organ. However, it remains in the research and development step in the field of electronic devices and optical components. Especially, although 3D printed optical components including microlens and color filter are expected to be widely used in display and imaging systems, it is still under investigation for commercialized products, and there are limitations in terms of materials, length scale, shape, and practical applications of components. Therefore, to overcome these issues, it is required for investigating and expanding the potential usefulness for 3D printed optical components in display and imaging systems to achieve better performance, productivity, and usability in three aspects. First, it should be possible to manufacture structures with a wide range of length scales from micrometer to centimeter through various 3D printing methods. Second, complex shapes such as free-from curved surfaces and hierarchical structures should be easily fabricated. Third, it is necessary to add functionality by manufacturing structures in which tunable functions are introduced using soft materials like an elastomer. Based on the above motivations, 3D printing-based customized optical components for display and imaging system applications are introduced in this dissertation. 3D printed optical components are classified into three types and their applications are showed to verify the scalability of 3D printing: macro-scale, microscale, and hierarchical macro/micro-scale. As macro-scale printed optical components, lens and mirror which are the most basic optical components are selected. The lens is fabricated by a pneumatic-type dispensing method with the form of a cylindrical pair and adopted for demonstration of seamless modular flat panel display. Besides, a seamless modular curved-edge display is also demonstrated with a mirror, which is fabricated from fused deposition modeling (FDM)-type 3D printed mold. By simply attaching a printed lens or mirror onto the seam of the modular display, it is possible to secure seamless screen expansion technology with the various form factor of the display panel. In the case of micro-scale printed optical components, the color-convertible microlens is chosen, which act as a color converter and light extractor simultaneously in a light-emitting diode (LED). By electrohydrodynamic (EHD) printing of quantum dot (QD)/photocurable polymer composite, QD-embedded hemispherical lens shape structures with various sizes are fabricated by adjusting printing conditions. Furthermore, it is applied to a blue micro-LED array for full-color micro-LED display applications. Finally, a tunable bio-inspired compound (BIC) eyes structure with a combination of dispensing and a dry-phase rubbing process is suggested as a hierarchical macro/micro-scale printed optical components. A hemispherical macrolens is formed by the dispensing method, followed by a dry-phase rubbing process for arranging micro particles in monolayer onto the curved surface of the macrolens. This hierarchical structure is replicated in soft materials, which have intrinsic stretchability. Microlens array is formed on the surface of the macrolens and acts as a rigid island, thereby maintaining lens shape, resolution, and focal length even though the mechanical strain is applied to overall hierarchical structures and the shape of the macrolens is changed. The primary purposes of this dissertation are to introduce new concepts of the enabling technologies for 3D printed optical components and to shed new light on them. Optical components can be easily made as 3D printing equipment becomes cheaper and more precise, so the field of Consumer optics or Do it yourself (DIY) optics will be gradually expanded on deformable and multi-scale optics. It is expected that this dissertation can contribute to providing a guideline for utilizing and customizing 3D printed optical components in next-generation display and imaging system applications.Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1.1. Manufacturing Process 1 1.2. Additive Manufacturing 4 1.3. Printed Optical Components 8 1.4. Motivation and Organization of Dissertation 11 Chapter 2. Macro-scale Printed Optical Components 15 2.1. Introduction 15 2.2. Seamless Modular Flat Display with Printed Lens 20 2.2.1. Main Concept 20 2.2.2. Experimental Section 23 2.2.3. Results and Discussion 26 2.3. Seamless Modular Curved-edge Display with Printed Mirror 32 2.3.1. Main Concept 32 2.3.2. Experimental Section 33 2.3.3. Results and Discussion 36 2.4. Conclusion 46 Chapter 3. Micro-scale Printed Optical Components 47 3.1. Introduction 47 3.2. Full-color Micro-LED Array with Printed Color-convertible Microlens 52 3.2.1. Main Concept 52 3.2.2. Experimental Section 54 3.2.3. Results and Discussion 57 3.3. Conclusion 65 Chapter 4. Hierarchical Macro/Micro-scale Printed Optical Components 66 4.1. Introduction 66 4.2. Tunable Bio-inspired Compound Eye with Printing and Dry-phase Rubbing Process 69 4.2.1. Main Concept 69 4.2.2. Experimental Section 71 4.2.3. Results and Discussion 73 4.3. Conclusion 79 Chapter 5. Conclusion 80 5.1. Summary 80 5.2. Limitations and Suggestions for Future Researches 83 References 88 Abstract in Korean (국문 초록) 107Docto

Materials jetting for advanced optoelectronic interconnect: technologies and application

This report covers the work carried out on Teaching Company Scheme No. 2275 "Materials Jetting for Advanced Interconnect" between February 1998 and February 2000. The project was conducted at the Harlow laboratories of Nortel Networks with the support of the Department of Manufacturing Engineering of Loughborough University. Technical direction and supervision has been provided by Mr Paul Conway, Reader, at Loughborough University, Professor Ken Snowdon and Mr Chris Tanner of Nortel Networks. The aim of the project was to produce and deposit minute and precise volumes of a range of materials, such as metallic alloys, glasses and polymers, onto a variety of substrates commonly used in the electronics and optoelectronics fields. The technology, which is analogous to ink-jet printing, firstly had to be refined to accommodate higher processing temperatures of up to 350°C. The ultimate project deliverable was to produce a specification for jetting equipment suited towards volume manufacturing. [Continues.

Bio-Micro-Systems for Diagnostic Applications, Disease Prevention and Creating Tools for Biological Research

This thesis, divided into two parts, describes the development of 5 novel Bio-Micro-System devices. The term Bio-Micro-System has been used here to describe BioMEMS and 3D printed devices, with the dimensions of key components ranging from micrometers to a millimeter. Part A is focused on ‘Medical’ Micro-System devices that can potentially solve common medical problems. Part B is focused on ‘Biological’ Micro-System devices/tools for facilitating/enabling biological research. Specifically, Part A describes two implantable, electronics-free intraocular pressure (IOP) microsensors for the medical management of glaucoma: 1) Near Infrared Fluorescence-based Optomechanical (NiFO) technology - Consists of an implantable, pressure sensor that ‘optically encodes’ pressure in the near infrared (NIR) regime. A non-implantable, portable and compact optical head is used to excite the sensor and collect the emitted NIR light. The thesis discusses optimized device architecture and microfabrication approaches for best performance commercialization. 2) Displacement based Contrast Imaging (DCI) technology - A proof of concept, fluid pressure sensing scheme is shown to operate over a pressure range of 0–100 mbar (∼2 mbar resolution between 0–20 mbar,∼10 mbar resolution between 20–100 mbar), with a maximum error of <7% throughout its dynamic range. The thesis introduces the DCI technology and discusses its application as an IOP sensor. Moreover, Part A also describes a Touch-activated Sanitizer Dispensing (TSD) system for combating community acquired infections. The TSD can be mounted on any surface that is exposed to high human traffic and consists of an array of human-powered, miniaturized valves that deliver a small amount of disinfectant when touch actuated. The device disinfects the person’s hand that is touching it while being self-sterilized at the same time. The thesis describes the design and implementation of a proof of concept TSD that can disinfect an area equivalent to the size of a thumb. A significant (~ 10 fold) reduction in microbiological load is demonstrated on the fingertip and device surface within the first 24 hours. The size and footprint of the TSD can be scaled up as needed to improve hand hygiene compliance. In Part B, we developed a microfluidic chip for immobilizing Drosophila melanogaster larva by creating a cold micro-environment around the larva. After characterizing on chip temperature distribution and larval body movement, results indicate that the method is appropriate for repetitive and reversible, short-term (several minutes) immobilization. The method offers the added advantage of using the same chip to accommodate and immobilize larvae across all developmental stages (1st instar-late 3rd instar). Besides the demonstrated applications of the chip in high resolution observation of sub cellular events such as mitochondrial trafficking in neurons and neuro-synaptic growth, we envision the use of this method in a wide variety of biological imaging studies employing the Drosophila larval system, including cellular development and other studies. Finally, Part B also describes a 3D printed millifluidic device for CO2 immobilization of Caenorhabditis elegans populations. We developed a novel 3D printed device for immobilizing populations of Caenorhabditis elegans by creating a localized CO2 environment while the animals are maintained on the surface of agar. The results indicate that the method is easy to implement, is appropriate for short-term (20 minutes) immobilization and allows recovery within a few minutes. We envision its use in a wide variety of biological studies in Caenorhabditis elegan, including cellular development and neuronal regeneration studies.PHDBiomedical EngineeringUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttps://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/144050/1/amritarc_1.pd

Design and development of a microfluidic platform for use with colorimetric gold nanoprobe assays

Due to the importance and wide applications of the DNA analysis, there is a need to make genetic analysis more available and more affordable. As such, the aim of this PhD thesis is to optimize a colorimetric DNA biosensor based on gold nanoprobes developed in CEMOP by reducing its price and the needed volume of solution without compromising the device sensitivity and reliability, towards the point of care use. Firstly, the price of the biosensor was decreased by replacing the silicon photodetector by a low cost, solution processed TiO2 photodetector. To further reduce the photodetector price, a novel fabrication method was developed: a cost-effective inkjet printing technology that enabled to increase TiO2 surface area. Secondly, the DNA biosensor was optimized by means of microfluidics that offer advantages of miniaturization, much lower sample/reagents consumption, enhanced system performance and functionality by integrating different components. In the developed microfluidic platform, the optical path length was extended by detecting along the channel and the light was transmitted by optical fibres enabling to guide the light very close to the analysed solution. Microfluidic chip of high aspect ratio (~13), smooth and nearly vertical sidewalls was fabricated in PDMS using a SU-8 mould for patterning. The platform coupled to the gold nanoprobe assay enabled detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis using 3 8l on DNA solution, i.e. 20 times less than in the previous state-of-the-art. Subsequently, the bio-microfluidic platform was optimized in terms of cost, electrical signal processing and sensitivity to colour variation, yielding 160% improvement of colorimetric AuNPs analysis. Planar microlenses were incorporated to converge light into the sample and then to the output fibre core increasing 6 times the signal-to-losses ratio. The optimized platform enabled detection of single nucleotide polymorphism related with obesity risk (FTO) using target DNA concentration below the limit of detection of the conventionally used microplate reader (i.e. 15 ng/μl) with 10 times lower solution volume (3 μl). The combination of the unique optical properties of gold nanoprobes with microfluidic platform resulted in sensitive and accurate sensor for single nucleotide polymorphism detection operating using small volumes of solutions and without the need for substrate functionalization or sophisticated instrumentation. Simultaneously, to enable on chip reagents mixing, a PDMS micromixer was developed and optimized for the highest efficiency, low pressure drop and short mixing length. The optimized device shows 80% of mixing efficiency at Re = 0.1 in 2.5 mm long mixer with the pressure drop of 6 Pa, satisfying requirements for the application in the microfluidic platform for DNA analysis.Portuguese Science Foundation - (SFRH/BD/44258/2008), “SMART-EC” projec